Meghan S. Stroshine

Toward an Understanding of the Physical Hazards of Police Work

Most of the existing research on the hazards of police work concludes that policing is a dangerous occupation. The operationalization of dangerousness used by most researchers, however, fails to account for injuries and deaths that occur as a result of accidents, relying instead on the analysis of assaults and homicides. Defining dangerousness in this manner not only provides an incomplete picture of the dangers associated with the job but also precludes the comparison of policing to other occupations. Using injury report data from a police department and fire department in a large Midwestern city, this study contributes to knowledge in this area by (a) expanding the conceptualization of dangerousness to include injuries that occur as a result of accidents, (b) comparing accidental injuries to those that result from felonious acts, and (c) comparing injury incidents of varying natures and causes across occupations.

Transforming Citizens into Suspects: Factors that Influence the Formation of Police Suspicion

The present study examines the formation of police suspicion and the mental processes and decisions officers make prior to stopping and questioning citizens. Furthermore, the authors include a brief discussion of the outcomes of stops made. The authors use both quantitative and qualitative data drawn from an observational study of police decision making in Savannah, Georgia. The reasons officers gave for becoming suspicious of citizens were coded into four categories: appearance, behavior, time and place, and information. The results do not support the speculation that it is during this prestop stage in the officers’ decision making when major levels of discrimination take place. However, the authors did uncover some stops based on nonbehavioral criteria, which are potentially problematic. The implications of these findings for understanding police decision making during the prestop stage of the decision-making process are discussed.

The Influence of “Working Rules” on Police Suspicion and Discretionary Decision Making

This study examines the role of “working rules” that define what officers interpret as suspicious people, places, and situations. Data were drawn from observational studies of police decision making in Savannah, Georgia and Miami-Dade, Florida. Current theory and research on the use of police discretion and biased policing is focused on the decision to stop, search, or arrest a suspect. Only a few studies focus on processes through which police determine behaviors to be suspicious that influence them to initiate official police action. An analysis of the “working rules” used by officers uncovered 12 substantive categories. The article concludes with a discussion of how this information can be useful in formulating training for police departments.

Race, Gender, and Tokenism in Policing: An Empirical Elaboration

According to tokenism theory, “tokens” (those who comprise less than 15% of a group’s total) are expected to experience a variety of hardships in the workplace, such as feelings of heightened visibility, isolation, and limited opportunities for advancement. In the policing literature, most previous studies have defined tokenism narrowly in terms of gender. The current research extends prior research by examining tokenism as a function of gender and race, with an examination of racial/ethnic subgroups. Particular attention is paid to Latino officers as this study represents the first known study of tokenism and Latino police officers. Quantitative analyses reveal that, for the most part, token police officers do experience the effects of tokenism as predicted by tokenism theory. Although all minorities experienced some level of tokenism, Black males and Black females experienced greater levels of tokenism than Latino officers, suggesting that race is a stronger predictor of tokenism than gender.

The Physical Hazards of Police Work Revisited

This study examines the extent to which injuries to police officers have changed from 1996-1998 to 2006-2008. Data were obtained from injury reports filed by sworn officers of the Milwaukee (Wisconsin) Police Department. Results indicated that the frequency and rate (injury incidents per officer) of officer assaults, other suspect-related injuries, and accidents declined during the study period. While the specification of the reasons for these changes remains a topic for future research, the decline in assaults and suspect-related injuries may well be a function of the increased availability and more routine use of less lethal technology, enhanced training, and the more common use of protective equipment.

The Role of Officer Attributes, Job Characteristics, and Arrest Activity in Explaining Police Use of Force

While numerous studies have examined the causes, correlates, and control of police use of force, many questions remain. This study contributes to the literature on police use of force by examining the role of officers’ background characteristics, job characteristics (patrol area and shift assignment), and arrest activity in explaining variation in the frequency with which officers use force. Analyses were conducted on 1,084 police officers employed in a large municipal police department. Use of force data were obtained from 477 official departmental reports from 2010. Results suggest that a small proportion of officers are responsible for a large proportion of force incidents, and that officers who frequently use force differ in important and significant ways from officers who use force less often (or not at all). Policy implications and directions for future research are discussed.

Exploring Agreement on Appropriate Responses to Domestic Violence and Sexual Trauma Across Victim Advocates, Mental Health Service Providers, and Substance Abuse Treatment Providers

Abstract Research suggests that survivors of domestic violence and sexual assault are more at risk than the general population for substance abuse and/or mental health disorders (Kendler et al., 2000). Additionally, research suggests that survivors of both crimes are at risk to be “multiply diagnosed-have” a history of victimization, a mental health diagnosis, and abuse of alcohol and drugs (Steele & Rechberger, 2002). While advocates have called for a change in the treatment of trauma survivors to treat their multiple needs, the availability of collaborative care between victim advocates and behavioral health professionals remains questionable. Using survey data collected from victim advocates, mental health service providers, and substance abuse treatment providers, this study assesses the extent to which providers of different backgrounds agree on how to effectively and appropriately serve domestic violence and sexual assault survivors-the first step in achieving the goal of holistic care.

The Relationship Between Gun and Gun Buyer Characteristics and Firearm Time-to-Crime

Gun violence continues to be a major crime control problem in many metropolitan cities in America. To comprehend this problem more completely, this study seeks to develop an understanding of the dynamics of illegal firearm markets in one particular city: Milwaukee, Wisconsin. In particular, the characteristics of guns and gun buyers that are related to fast firearm time-to-crime are identified. The U.S. Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, Firearms, and Explosives (ATF) trace data and Milwaukee (Wisconsin) Police Department (MPD) records associated with guns purchased at federally licensed gun dealers and subsequently confiscated by the MPD in 2005 (N = 1,563) are used. The results of the analyses revealed both the characteristics of the fast time-to-crime guns (large caliber, semiautomatic, sold at a particular Milwaukee gun dealer) and their buyers (minority females). The results highlight problematic gun sales and purchasing patterns that are suggestive of statutory changes, stronger regulatory measures, and supply-side gun market disruption efforts.

Oleoresin Capsicum Spray and TASERs A Comparison of Factors Predicting Use and Effectiveness

In the last few decades, several less lethal forms of force have been introduced, adopted, and deployed by police agencies. Oleoresin capsicum (OC) spray is now used in nearly every department across the United States; the Thomas A. Swift Electric Rifle (TASER) is used in the majority of police departments. Despite their widespread use, we still know relatively little about the factors associated with the use of OC spray and TASERs and the effectiveness of these weapons in incapacitating subjects. Knowing when these weapons are used and whether they are effective would provide for a more complete understanding of their strengths and limitations and inform the debate about where less lethal weapons should be placed on use of force continua. This article contributes to the discussion by analyzing 504 use-of-force incidents where the police used OC spray or TASERs during the event. Data were obtained from a large municipal police department on incidents that occurred in 2010 and 2011. Policy considerations and directions for further research are discussed.