Melanie J. Spence

Psychological and Neural Perspectives on the Role of Motion in Face Recognition

In the real world, faces are in constant motion. Recently, researchers have begun to consider how facial motion affects memory for faces. The authors offer a theoretical framework that synthesizes psychological findings on memory for moving faces. Three hypotheses about the possible roles of facial motion in memory are evaluated. In general, although facial motion is helpful for recognizing familiar/famous faces, its benefits are less certain with unfamiliar faces. Importantly, the implicit social signals provided by a moving face (e.g., gaze changes, expression, and facial speech) may mediate the effects of facial motion on recognition. Insights from the developmental literature, which highlight the significance of attention in the processing of social information from faces, are also discussed. Finally, a neural systems framework that considers both the processing of socially relevant motion information and static feature-based information is presented. This neural systems model provides a useful framework for understanding the divergent psychological findings.

Developmental shifts in children's sensitivity to visual speech: A new multimodal picture-word task

This research developed a multimodal picture-word task for assessing the influence of visual speech on phonological processing by 100 children between 4 and 14 years of age. We assessed how manipulation of seemingly to-be-ignored auditory (A) and audiovisual (AV) phonological distractors affected picture naming without participants consciously trying to respond to the manipulation. Results varied in complex ways as a function of age and type and modality of distractors. Results for congruent AV distractors yielded an inverted U-shaped function with a significant influence of visual speech in 4-year-olds and 10- to 14-year-olds but not in 5- to 9-year-olds. In concert with dynamic systems theory, we proposed that the temporary loss of sensitivity to visual speech was reflecting reorganization of relevant knowledge and processing subsystems, particularly phonology. We speculated that reorganization may be associated with (a) formal literacy instruction and (b) developmental changes in multimodal processing and auditory perceptual, linguistic, and cognitive skills.

Effects of Prenatal Cocaine Exposure and Postnatal Environment on Child Development

Studies on the long‐term developmental effects of in utero cocaine exposure are few and the small number of studies published do not consider the postnatal environment. The present investigation was conducted to quantify the role that postnatal environment played compared to prenatal exposure. Four groups of 25 infants, each assessed at 12 months of age, were included in the study design: 1) noncocaine‐exposed children residing with their biological parents in low socioeconomic environments, 2) cocaine‐exposed children living with their biological parents in low socioeconomic environments, 3) noncocaine‐exposed children adopted at birth in middle to upper‐middle socioeconomic environments, and 4) cocaine‐exposed children adopted at birth. Infants were assessed by the Uzgiris‐Hunt Ordinal Scales of Infant Psychological Development, the Fagan Test of Infant Intelligence, and the Infant Monitoring Questionnaire. Height and head circumference were measured. Gender and ethnicity were controlled statistically. Significant differences were found in cognitive functioning, in fine motor development, and in physical growth between control and prenatally cocaine‐exposed children. Adoption enhanced cognitive functioning and fine motor skills among infants not exposed to cocaine prenatally, but had no apparent effect on infants prenatally exposed to cocaine. Am. J. Hum. Biol. 12:417–428, 2000.

Six-Month-Olds' Categorization of Natural Infant-Directed Utterances.

In this study, the authors demonstrated that 6-month-old infants are able to categorize natural, 650 Hz low-pass filtered infant-directed utterances. In Experiment 1, 24 male and 24 female infants heard 7 different tokens from 1 class of utterance (comforting or approving). Then, some infants heard a novel test stimulus from the familiar class of tokens; others heard a test stimulus from the unfamiliar class. Infants categorized these tokens as evidenced by response recovery to tokens from the unfamiliar class but not to novel tokens from the familiar class. Experiment 2 confirmed that the infants were able to discriminate between closely matched tokens from within each category, supporting the conclusion that the results of Experiment 1 indicated categorization. The authors discuss both a mechanism that might explain the development of this ability and the mutual adaptation seen in parent-infant communication.

Effects of childhood hearing loss on organization of semantic memory: Typicality and relatedness

Objective: The purpose of this research was to study how early childhood hearing loss affects development of concepts and categories, aspects of semantic knowledge that allow us to group and make inferences about objects with common properties, such as dogs versus cats. We assessed category typicality and out-of-category relatedness effects. The typicality effect refers to performance advantage (faster reaction times, fewer errors) for objects with a higher number of a categorys characteristic properties; the out-of-category relatedness effect refers to performance disadvantage (slower reaction times and more errors) for out-of-category objects that share some properties with category members. Design: We applied a new childrens speeded category-verification task (vote “yes” if the pictured object is clothing). Stimuli were pictures of typical and atypical category objects (e.g., pants, glove) and related and unrelated out-of-category objects (e.g., necklace, soup). Participants were 30 children with hearing impairment (HI) who were considered successful hearing aid users and who attended regular classes (mainstreamed) with some support services. Ages ranged from 5 to 15 yr (mean = 10 yr 8 mo). Results were related to normative data from Jerger and Damian (2005). Results: Typical objects consistently showed preferential processing (faster reaction times, fewer errors), and related out-of-category objects consistently showed the converse. Overall, results between HI and normative groups exhibited striking similarity. Variation in speed of classification was influenced primarily by age and age-related competencies, such as vocabulary skill. Audiological status, however, independently influenced performance to a lesser extent, with positive responses becoming faster as degree of hearing loss decreased and negative responses becoming faster as age of identification/amplification/education decreased. There were few errors overall. Conclusions: The presence of a typicality effect indicates that 1) the structure of conceptual representations for at least one category in the HI group was based on characteristic properties with an uneven distribution among members, and 2) typical objects with a higher number of characteristic properties were more easily accessed and/or retrieved. The presence of a relatedness effect indicates that the structure of representational knowledge in the HI group allowed them to appreciate semantic properties and understand that properties may be shared between categories. Speculations linked the association 1) between positive responses and degree of hearing loss to an increase in the quality, accessibility, and retrievability of conceptual representations with better hearing; and 2) between negative responses and age of identification/amplification/education to an improvement in effortful, postretrieval decision-making proficiencies with more schooling and amplified auditory experience. This research establishes the value of our new approach to assessing the organization of semantic memory in children with HI.