Melissa Baralt

Comparing Learners' State Anxiety during Task-Based Interaction in Computer-Mediated and Face-to-Face Communication.

The construct of anxiety is often believed to be the affective factor with the greatest potential to pervasively affect the learning process (Horwitz, 2001), and recent research has demonstrated that anxiety can mediate whether learners are able to notice feedback and subsequently produce output (Sheen, 2008). In order to reduce the negative effects of anxiety, researchers have suggested that computer-based interaction may be an ideal medium for communication and practice (Kern, 1995), although this hypothesis has yet to be tested empirically. The current study addresses this gap by comparing the effect of computer-mediated communication (CMC) vs. face-to-face communication (FTF) on learners’ state anxiety. Twenty-five learners of intermediate Spanish completed two information-gap tasks with their teacher in a within-subject, counterbalanced design. Learners’ state anxiety was measured halfway through and following each task via a state anxiety questionnaire, and a task preference questionnaire was administered after the treatment. Results demonstrate that — contrary to expectations — reported state anxiety was not significantly lower in the CMC mode than the FTF mode. In fact, learners’ reported state anxiety was comparable across modality. The use and implications of both interactional modes for foreign language learning contexts are discussed, as are students’ perceptions of interaction in the CMC and FTF modes.

The Impact of Cognitive Complexity on Feedback Efficacy during Online Versus Face-to-Face Interactive Tasks.

Informed by the cognition hypothesis (Robinson, 2011 ), recent studies indicate that more cognitively complex tasks can result in better incorporation of feedback during interaction and, as a consequence, more learning. It is not known, however, how task complexity and feedback work together in computerized environments. The present study addressed this gap by investigating how cognitive complexity in face-to-face (FTF) versus computer-mediated communication (CMC) environments mediates the efficacy of recasts in promoting second language development. Eighty-four adult learners of Spanish as a foreign language at a mid-Atlantic university were randomly assigned to a control group or one of four experimental groups. The experimental groups engaged in one-on-one interaction and received recasts on the Spanish past subjunctive but differed according to (a) whether or not they had to reflect on another person’s intentional reasons during the task and (b) whether they interacted in FTF or CMC environments. Learning was measured with two production tasks and a multiple-choice receptive test in a Pretest-Posttest 1-Posttest 2 design. Results revealed that in the FTF mode, performing the cognitively complex task while receiving recasts led to the most learning. In the CMC mode, the cognitively complex task + recasts was not effective. Instead, the cognitively simple task led to the most development in CMC. The study also found that judgments of time on task were the only independent measure of cognitive complexity that held across mode.

Exploring Learner Perception and Use of Task-Based Interactional Feedback in FTF and CMC Modes

Theoretical claims about the benefits of corrective feedback have been largely premised on learners’ noticing of feedback (e.g., Gass & Mackey, 2006 ; Long, 1996 ; Schmidt, 1990 , 1995 ; Swain, 1995 ), and findings have demonstrated that both the feedback target (Mackey, Gass, & McDonough, 2000 ) and the mode of provision (Lai & Zhao, 2006 ) can affect learners’ accurate perception of feedback. The current study extended this research by investigating learners’ perception and use of feedback provided in task-based interaction in both computer-mediated (CMC) and face-to-face (FTF) modes. Utilizing stimulated recall, the study examined if 24 intermediate-level learners of Spanish as a foreign language accurately noticed feedback as feedback, if they noticed the feedback target, and if the environment in which they interacted (CMC vs. FTF) made a difference in their accuracy. The study also investigated if modality affected opportunities for modified output immediately following feedback and if learners used those opportunities differently according to mode. Results demonstrated that, overall, learners did notice feedback as feedback in both modes. Contrary to expectations, there were no statistical differences between modes in feedback perception accuracy. Significant differences were found, however, in learners’ opportunities for and use of feedback depending on the interaction environment and the type of error being addressed.

8. Engagement with the language: How examining learners’ affective and social engagement explains successful learner-generated attention to form

Interactive tasks that have successfully promoted attention to form and language learning in face-to-face (FTF) can be ineffective when performed online (Baralt 2013, 2014). This research is concerning, given the push for online language classes in higher education (Leow, Cerezo, & Baralt 2015). One reason that interactive language tasks do not translate to online settings may be the diminished affect and socialization present in online settings (Baralt 2014). Despite this hypothesis, researchers continue to explore learners’ attention to form from exclusively the cognitive perspective. Recently, Svalberg (2009; 2012) proposed a new model for exploring how learners achieve awareness of forms: a threefold construct including cognitive as well as social and affective engagement. The present chapter is the first to empirically operationalize Svalberg’s model for analyzing learners’ attention (or not) to forms during task-based peer interaction. Forty intermediate-level learners of Spanish performed either cognitively simple or complex interactive dyadic tasks in person or online. Learners’ interaction and post-task questionnaires were then coded for the three types of engagement. Results showed more cognitive engagement (e.g., attention to language forms, reflection), social engagement (e.g., supportive interaction) and affective engagement (e.g., positive feelings) in FTF, particularly during the more complex task. All three types of engagement were diminished or were entirely absent in the online interactions. We argue that the lack of social and affective engagement is what deterred cognitive engagement with language forms. The chapter concludes with a discussion on why researchers must consider social and affective engagement to understand how language awareness can be differentially experienced online.

Does the medium really matter in L2 development? The validity of CALL research designs

Currently, an increasing number of educational institutions are redefining second/foreign language (L2) classrooms by enhancing – or even replacing – traditional face-to-face (FTF) instruction with computer-assisted language learning (CALL). However, are these curricular decisions supported by research? Overall, a cursory review of empirical studies appears to provide strong support for the use of CALL. Studies claim that technology can successfully promote learning in several areas of L2 acquisition, including grammar, and that it can even outperform FTF instruction in some cases. However, the methodological validity of this body of research has never been thoroughly assessed and, consequently, we ignore how much confidence we can place in its results. To address this, the present study analyzes the internal and external validity of 16 recent developmental studies. Based on this analysis, we conclude that at this point no strong argument can be made about whether or not the medium matters in L2 development, until further empirical studies with more robust research designs fully address the comparative effects of CALL vs. FTF instruction, including the role of some possibly intervening variables such as task type, time-on-task, or modality. To this end, we provide methodological recommendations that may raise the internal and external validity of future research designs as the empirical interest in CALL continues to blossom.

A Psycholinguistic Approach to Technology and Language Learning

The use of technology for second language learning is ever more present. This book offers a unique four-prong approach (theoretical, methodological, empirical, and pedagogical) to current and prospective uses of technology in L2 learning from a psycholinguistic perspective. It is accessible to teachers, graduate students, and professors of all disciplines interested in technology and L2 learning.

Teaching Chinese as a foreign language: A classroom study on the timing of grammar around a task

Abstract Contrary to common belief, there is a place for grammar teaching in task-based language teaching (TBLT). It is still an unresolved debate, however, what the most effective timing of grammar teaching is around a task. Citing theory, some methodologists argue against grammar in the pre-task phase (e. g., Willis 1996. A framework for task-based learning. Harlow: Longman; Willis and Willis 2007. Doing task-based teaching. Oxford: Oxford University Press), while others argue for it (e. g., DeKeyser 1998. Beyond focus on form: Cognitive perspectives on learning and practicing second language grammar. In C. Doughty & J. Williams (eds.), Focus on form in classroom second language acquisition, 42–63. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press; Lightbown 1998. What have we here? Some observations on the influence of instruction on L2 learning. In R. Phillipson, E. Kellerman, L. Selinker, M. Sharwood Smith & M. Swain (eds.), Foreign language pedagogy research: A commemorative volume for Claus Faerch, 197–212. Clevedon: Multilingual Matters and Nunan 2004. Task-based language teaching. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press). Still other methodologists have suggested that a pre-task grammar explanation renders TBLT more culturally appropriate in Confucian-heritage teaching contexts (e. g., Carless 2007. The suitability of task-based approaches for secondary schools: Perspectives from Hong Kong. Schools: Perspectives from Hong Kong. System 35. 595–608; Luk 2009. Preparing EFL students for communicative task performance: The nature and role of language knowledge. Asian Journal of English Language Teaching 19. 67–90). None of these claims have been tested empirically. The present paper attempts to contribute to that gap by reporting on a case study that took place in a Chinese as a foreign language classroom in the United States. We examined how a Chinese teacher’s grammar teaching in the pre- versus post-task phase differentially affected the task outcome, as well as the teacher’s and learners’ beliefs of which was most effective. One Chinese teacher and 12 learners participated in the study. Results showed that the task outcome was comprised of more language production, accuracy, and modified output, as well as 15 times more interactional turns, when the grammar was explained in the post-task phase. However, the teacher overwhelmingly valued a grammar explanation in the pre-task phase. Learners were equally divided. We discuss how the methodological timing of grammar shaped discourse differently for the pragmatic ends of tasks, and make suggestions for Chinese teachers new to TBLT.