Melissa J. Hagan

Negative relationships in the family-of-origin predict attenuated cortisol in emerging adults

Negative childhood family environments have been associated with stress-related physical and psychological health consequences across the lifespan. The present study examined the relation between adverse relationships in the family of origin and physiological stress response, as measured by salivary cortisol, in emerging adulthood. Seventy-six university students (age range=18-22) selected from intact married families-of-origin characterized by either negative (n=39) or positive (n=37) relationship quality engaged in a challenging role play task. Results from multilevel models indicated that those from negative families exhibited significantly lower salivary cortisol across the task than those from positive families. This relation did not change in strength or direction after controlling for experiences with abuse or recent anxiety or depressive symptoms. These findings suggest the significance of early family relationships on the long-term activity of the HPA axis.

Cortisol levels six-years after participation in the Family Bereavement Program.

Recent studies have found short-term adrenocortical benefits of early interventions for at-risk children. The current study evaluated the effects of the Family Bereavement Program on cortisol levels six years after the program. Parentally bereaved children were randomly assigned to the 12-week preventive intervention (n=78) or a self-study control (n=61) condition. Six years later (mean age 17.5), salivary cortisol levels were measured before and after a conflict discussion task conducted in late afternoon/early evening. The intervention group had significantly higher cortisol levels across the task compared to the control group, and lower cortisol was associated with higher externalizing symptoms. The group effect did not differ by age at the time of death, and the group difference remained significant after adjustment for pre-intervention mental health and current mental health symptoms. Results suggest that a family-focused intervention for parentally bereaved youth may have prevented the development of attenuated cortisol secretion suggestive of dysregulation and associated with externalizing problems.

Strengthening Effective Parenting Practices Over the Long Term: Effects of a Preventive Intervention for Parentally Bereaved Families

This study tested the effect of the Family Bereavement Program (FBP), a preventive intervention for bereaved families, on effective parenting (e.g., caregiver warmth, consistent discipline) 6 years after program completion. Families (n = 101; 69% female caregivers; 77% Caucasian, 11% Hispanic) with children between ages 8 and 16 who had experienced the death of one parent were randomized to the FBP (n = 54) or a literature control condition (n = 47). Multiple regression analyses conducted within a multilevel framework indicated that the FBP had a significant positive impact on a multirater, multimeasure assessment of parenting at 6-year follow-up, controlling for pretest levels of parenting and child mental health problems. Mediation analyses showed that short-term program effects on parenting, including caregiver warmth and effective discipline, significantly mediated the impact of the FBP on effective parenting 6 years later. These findings indicate that a relatively cost-effective brief intervention for families who experienced a major stressor resulted in sustained effects on caregiver warmth and consistent discipline 6 years following the program.

Mental health outcomes in emerging adults exposed to childhood maltreatment: the moderating role of stress reactivity.

Childhood maltreatment is an established risk factor for varying configurations of psychological problems in emerging adulthood. The current study tested associations between childhood maltreatment, cortisol reactivity, and current mental health symptoms in emerging adulthood. Eighty-eight participants (aged 18–22) completed measures of childhood maltreatment and current internalizing and externalizing symptoms and participated in a 10-min conflict role-play task. Salivary cortisol was sampled throughout the task, and a residualized change score between baseline and peak time points was computed to capture reactivity. Results from robust regression analyses indicated that cortisol reactivity moderated the association between childhood maltreatment and mental health symptoms as hypothesized. Childhood maltreatment was related to greater internalizing problems among participants with higher cortisol reactivity, whereas maltreatment was associated with greater externalizing problems among participants who exhibited lower cortisol reactivity. Results suggest that patterns of cortisol reactivity in emerging adulthood may help elucidate mental health outcomes associated with childhood maltreatment.

Prospective effects of post-bereavement negative events on cortisol activity in parentally bereaved youth.

Dysregulation of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis has been implicated in the association between adverse childhood experiences, such as parental death, and mental and physical health problems. Recent research indicates that children who experience the death of a parent exhibit HPA axis dysfunction; however, the mechanisms underlying this association have not been explored. It is theorized that physiological dysregulation may result from exposure to stressful life events subsequent to parental death. The current study examined the prospective relations between negative events following parental death and cortisol activity in parentally bereaved youth. A greater number of post-bereavement negative events predicted significantly lower levels of cortisol activity 6 years later; this association remained significant after controlling for current externalizing symptoms and recent negative events. Results suggest that higher exposure to stressful events following childhood parental loss may result in long-term attenuated cortisol activity.

Latent Profiles of Nonresidential Father Engagement Six Years After Divorce Predict Long-Term Offspring Outcomes

This study examined profiles of nonresidential father engagement (i.e., support to the adolescent, contact frequency, remarriage, relocation, and interparental conflict) with their adolescent children (N = 156) 6 to 8 years following divorce and the prospective relation between these profiles and the psychosocial functioning of their offspring, 9 years later. Parental divorce occurred during late childhood to early adolescence; indicators of nonresidential father engagement were assessed during adolescence, and mental health problems and academic achievement of offspring were assessed 9 years later in young adulthood. Three profiles of father engagement were identified in our sample of mainly White, non-Hispanic divorced fathers: Moderate Involvement/Low Conflict, Low Involvement/Moderate Conflict, and High Involvement/High Conflict. Profiles differentially predicted offspring outcomes 9 years later when they were young adults, controlling for quality of the mother–adolescent relationship, mothers remarriage, mothers income, and gender, age, and offspring mental health problems in adolescence. Offspring of fathers characterized as Moderate Involvement/Low Conflict had the highest academic achievement and the lowest number of externalizing problems 9 years later compared to offspring whose fathers had profiles indicating either the highest or lowest levels of involvement but higher levels of conflict. Results indicate that greater paternal psychosocial support and more frequent father–adolescent contact do not outweigh the negative impact of interparental conflict on youth outcomes in the long term. Implications of findings for policy and intervention are discussed.

Symptoms of Dissociation in a High‐Risk Sample of Young Children Exposed to Interpersonal Trauma: Prevalence, Correlates, and Contributors

Children who have experienced interpersonal trauma are at an increased risk of developing dissociation; however, little is known about the prevalence or correlates of dissociation in young children. The current study examined symptoms of dissociation in 140 children (mean age = 51.17 months, range = 36-72 months, SD = 10.31 months; 50.0% male; 45.7% Hispanic) who experienced trauma (e.g., witnessing domestic violence, experiencing abuse). Child dissociation and exposure to traumatic events were assessed using a clinician-administered interview with the biological mother (mean age = 32.02 years, SD = 6.13; 49.3% Hispanic; 25.5% married or cohabitating). Mothers completed measures of maternal dissociation, depression/anxiety, and child behavior problems. At least subclinical dissociation was present for 24.3% of children. Robust regression with least trimmed squares estimation showed that greater maternal dissociation was related to greater child dissociation, adjusting for child internalizing symptoms, number of traumas, and maternal depression/anxiety, B = 0.09, χ(2) = 10.47, p < .001, R(2) Δ = .04. Children who experienced direct victimization did not exhibit a significantly higher level of dissociation compared to children who experienced other traumas, F(1, 138) = 3.76, p = .054, η(2) = .03. These findings highlight the need to assess dissociation in traumatized young children.

Childhood Interparental Conflict and HPA Axis Activity in Young Adulthood: Examining Nonlinear Relations

Relations between early adversity and the neuroendocrine stress response are most often tested in a linear framework. Findings from studies of nonlinear relations between early stress and reactivity in childhood are suggestive, but curvilinear associations between childhood family stress and stress reactivity at later developmental stages remain unexplored. The current study examined curvilinear relations between childhood interparental conflict (IPC) and cortisol reactivity in young adulthood. Participants (n = 91; Mean age = 18.7, SD = .97; 59% White, 25% Hispanic) reported on the frequency and intensity of childhood exposure to IPC and salivary cortisol was sampled before and after a challenging interpersonal role-play task. Significant curvilinear relations were found such that higher total cortisol and cortisol reactivity during the task was observed among youth reporting lower and higher frequency of IPC, suggesting that moderate IPC exposure may be associated with lower cortisol activity at a later developmental stage.

Effects of a prevention program for divorced families on youth cortisol reactivity 15 years later.

Objective: We examined whether an empirically based, randomised controlled trial of a preventive intervention for divorced mothers and children had a long-term impact on offspring cortisol regulation. Design: Divorced mothers and children (age 9–12) were randomly assigned to a literature control condition or the 11-week New Beginnings Program, a family-focused group preventive intervention for mothers and children in newly divorced families. Main Outcome Measures: Fifteen years after the trial, offspring salivary cortisol (n = 161) was measured before and after a social stress task. Results: Multilevel mixed models were used to predict cortisol from internalizing symptoms, externalizing symptoms, group assignment and potential moderators of intervention effects. Across the sample, higher externalizing symptoms were associated with lower cortisol reactivity. There was a significant group-by-age interaction such that older offspring in the control group had higher reactivity relative to the intervention group, and younger offspring in the control group exhibited a decline across the task relative to younger offspring in the intervention group. Conclusions: Preventive interventions for youth from divorced families may have a long-term impact on cortisol reactivity to stress. Results highlight the importance of examining moderators of program effects.

Stress Response to the Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging Environment in Healthy Adults Relates to the Degree of Limbic Reactivity during Emotion Processing

Background: Imaging techniques are increasingly being used to examine the neural correlates of stress and emotion processing; however, relations between the primary stress hormone cortisol, the functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) environment, and individual differences in response to emotional challenges are not yet well studied. The present study investigated whether cortisol activity prior to, and during, an fMRI scan may be related to neural processing of emotional information. Methods: Twenty-six healthy individuals (10 female) completed a facial emotion perception test during 3-tesla fMRI. Results: Prescan cortisol was significantly correlated with enhanced amygdala, hippocampal, and subgenual cingulate reactivity for facial recognition. Cortisol change from pre- to postscanning predicted a greater activation in the precuneus for both fearful and angry faces. A negative relationship between overall face accuracy and activation in limbic regions was observed. Conclusion: Individual differences in response to the fMRI environment might lead to a greater heterogeneity of brain activation in control samples, decreasing the power to detect differences between clinical and comparison groups.