Melissa K. Carsten

Ethical Followership An Examination of Followership Beliefs and Crimes of Obedience

This study seeks to “reverse the lens” in leadership and ethics research by investigating whether follower (rather than leader) characteristics are associated with intentions to engage in unethical behavior. Specifically, we examine whether followers’ beliefs about the coproduction of leadership and the romance of leadership are related to their willingness to commit a “crime of obedience” by complying with a leader’s unethical request. Using a vignette depicting an unethical demand by a leader, 161 working adults were asked to indicate whether they would obey or challenge the leader’s request. Regression analyses show that individuals with weaker coproduction beliefs demonstrate a stronger intent to obey unethical requests, whereas individuals with stronger coproduction beliefs demonstrate a stronger intent to engage in constructive resistance. This relationship is partially mediated by displacement of responsibility. Findings also identify an interaction between followers’ belief in the coproduction of leadership and romance of leadership, such that individuals with stronger coproduction beliefs who romanticize leaders reported a stronger intent to obey unethical requests. Results are discussed in relation to research on obedience to authority and burgeoning research on followership.

The vision integration process: Applying Rogers’ diffusion of innovations theory to leader–follower communications

Involving followers in the communication of a new vision can be critical to its ultimate adoption. Viewing vision as a relatively novel guiding framework that may or may not “diffuse” throughout an organization, we apply Roger’s (2003) Diffusion of Innovations model to the visioning process. Employees from a large supermarket chain (n = 1481) completed surveys concerning vision knowledge, perceptions of the vision’s innovation characteristics (i.e. relative advantage, compatibility, trialability, observability, and complexity), bidirectional leader–follower communication about the vision, perceived integration of the vision into work behaviors, and organizational commitment. Perceptions of the innovation characteristics of the vision were related to both vision integration and commitment. Based on our findings, we argue that a new vision can be conceptualized as an innovation, in which followers are actively involved in decisions of adoption or rejection. We advocate a more balanced approach to vision integration that highlights both leader and follower roles.

Leadership in “Confucian Asia”: a three-country study of justice, trust, and transformational leadership†

Increasing globalization and the economic uncertainty inherent in the recent financial crisis have strained the already tenuous commitment of many employees, making followers’ perceptions of justice and trust more critical now than ever before in retaining a loyal workforce. A model of leadership, organizational justice, trust, and work outcomes such as commitment and satisfaction, similar to the one tested in the US, was extended to three countries in the so-called “Confucian Asian Cluster” in the Global Leadership and Organizational Behavior Effectiveness (GLOBE) study. Data were collected from executives in: Mainland China (N=131), Singapore (N=246), and Taiwan (N=99). Results indicate that transformational leaders in the Mainland build trust through procedural justice and distributive justice; trust in the leader is, in turn, related to job satisfaction and commitment. Transformational leaders in Singapore work indirectly through both distributive and procedural justice mechanisms to build trust and work outcomes, and also directly through trust to influence satisfaction and commitment. Finally, leaders in Taiwan use transformational leadership to influence procedural justice, trust, commitment, and satisfaction. Implications are discussed for leaders attempting to foster committed and satisfied workers in light of challenging economic circumstances.

Leader perceptions and motivation as outcomes of followership role orientation and behavior

Followership research posits that followers differ in the way they define and enact the followership role, which can have varying effects in relation to how leaders experience their own roles and responsibilities. Drawing from the role orientation literature and newly emerging research on followership, our study examines the indirect effects of followers’ co-production (co-producing leadership outcomes) and passive (deferring to leadership influence) role orientations on leader-rated outcomes of perceived follower support, leader motivation, and follower contribution to goal attainment via followers’ voice and upward delegation behaviors. Using data from 306 dyads in a Chinese organization, our results show that follower voice and upward delegation mediate the relationships linking followers’ co-production and passive role orientations with leader-rated outcomes. Our study provides evidence that followership role orientations and behaviors differentially influence leader perceptions regarding their followers’ support, contribution to goal attainment, and leader motivation. Implications are drawn for further research on followership and the importance of considering leader outcomes as critical variables in leadership and followership literatures.

Do You Believe What I Believe? A Theoretical Model of Congruence in Follower Role Orientation and Its Effects on Manager and Subordinate Outcomes

Abstract Building upon relational leadership theory, we develop a theoretical model examining the association between leader-follower congruence in follower role orientation and manager and subordinate relational and well-being outcomes. Follower role orientation represents individuals’ beliefs regarding the best way to enact a follower role. We predict that managers and subordinates who share similar role orientations will experience higher quality leader-member exchange (LMX) relationships and greater eustress than those who differ in their follower role orientations. Propositions are presented for direct effects between congruence and stress and indirect effects through LMX. Our theoretical model contributes to nascent research on followership by offering greater understanding of manager and subordinate beliefs regarding how followers should enact their roles, and the importance of considering leader (i.e., manager) as well as follower outcomes in the workplace. It also extends current thinking about stress as an important outcome of leader-follower relationships.

Employee Entitlement and Proactive Work Behaviors The Moderating Effects of Narcissism and Organizational Identification

Organizations are concerned that the newest generation of workers believe they are entitled to positive organizational outcomes, regardless of their level of effort. To better understand employee entitlement and organizational outcomes, we tested whether entitlement was directly related to the proactive work behaviors of voice and taking charge. We also examined whether narcissism and organizational identification moderated these relationships. Results suggest that entitlement is not directly related to either of the proactive work behaviors examined. However, support was found for a model where narcissism moderated the relationship between entitlement and taking charge behaviors. Low narcissism employees are less likely to exhibit taking charge behaviors when they report low levels of entitlement. When employees are high in narcissism, low entitlement employees are actually more likely to take charge than employees high in entitlement. Organizational identification was also found to moderate the relationship between entitlement and voice as well as between entitlement and taking charge. Highly entitled individuals will engage in more voice and taking charge when they demonstrate high levels of organizational identification. Implications for research and practice are discussed.

Determinants of turnover among low wage earners in long term care: The role of manager-employee relationships

ABSTRACT The demand for Long‐Term Care (LTC) is steadily increasing as Baby Boomers age and enter retirement. High turnover rates among employees in LTC creates challenges for supervisors and administrators, and can negatively impact quality of care. This study examines manager‐subordinate relationship quality using Leader‐Member Exchange Theory (LMX) as an antecedent to turnover among low‐wage earners in the LTC environment. Survey data measuring LMX, job satisfaction, and demographic information was collected at time 1, and turnover data was collected 18 months later at time 2. The results reveal that all four LMX dimensions were rated significantly different among subordinates who left versus those who stayed, however, only the LMX dimension of supervisor loyalty was a significant predictor of turnover among low wage earners. Our study adds a more nuanced view of the reasons low‐wage employees turnover, and presents implications for clinical managers and LTC organizations more broadly.

Followership Development: A Behavioral Approach

Leadership development programs have traditionally focused on building a leader’s skills, identities, and behavioral styles with little attention paid to followers. Yet we know that followers are an integral part of the leadership process, and effective followership can positively influence both leaders and organizations. The purpose of this chapter is to define and present a model for followership development in organizations. Using followership theory and research as a foundation, this chapter discusses two forms of followership behavior (i.e., active and passive), and examines the ways in which different followership styles can affect leaders and the leadership process. In doing so, I make a case for why organizations should invest in followership development for both leaders and followers in organizations, and present a general model for followership development programs. As organizations continue to rely on effective followership to support and enhance leadership, it is imperative that we begin bringing followers into the leadership development equation.