Merith Cosden

Risk, Resilience, and Adjustment of Individuals with Learning Disabilities

This article uses the concepts of risk and resiliency to frame our understanding of how having a learning disability affects nonacademic outcomes such as emotional adjustment, family functioning, adolescent problems of school dropout, substance abuse and juvenile delinquency, and adult adaptation. The presence of a learning disability is viewed as a risk factor that, in and of itself, does not predict positive or negative outcomes. Rather, other risk and protective factors, as highlighted in the literature, interact with the presence of a learning disability to facilitate or impede adjustment. These risk and protective factors may be internal characteristics of the individual or external characteristics of the family, school and community environments. Implications for the development of proactive interventions and areas for future research are discussed.

Self-Concept in Children with Learning Disabilities: The Relationship between Global Self-Concept, Academic “Discounting,” Nonacademic Self-Concept, and Perceived Social Support:

The purpose of this study was to explore how some children with learning disabilities maintain a positive self-concept despite academic difficulties. The study used Harters model to investigate the relationship between global self-concept and perceived competence in general intellectual ability, specific academic subjects, athletics, behavior and appearance, and perceived social support. Data were collected on 72 elementary-school students with learning disabilities. Five hypotheses were tested: (a) children would vary in their global and academic self-concept; (b) children with high global self-concept would discount the importance of academics; (c) children with high global self-concept would perceive themselves as more intelligent; (d) children with high global self-concept would perceive themselves as more competent in other, nonacademic domains; and (e) children with high global self-concept would perceive higher levels of social support. Data supported all hypotheses except discounting. Implications for interventions with students with learning disabilities are discussed.

THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN SELF-PERCEPTION OF A LEARNING DISABILITY AND ACHIEVEMENT, SELF-CONCEPT AND SOCIAL SUPPORT

This study investigated the relationship between self-perception of a learning disability (SPLD) and self-concept and social support. Fifty-six third-through sixth-grade children with learning disabilities were administered Heymans SPLD scale. This instrument measures the degree to which children view their disability as circumscribed, modifiable and nonstigmatizing rather than global, unchangeable and stigmatizing. Students were also administered two scales developed by Harter to measure general and domain-specific self-concept and social support. Results revealed that children with less negative perceptions of their learning disability had higher math achievement scores. Also, they perceived more positive global self-concept, more intellectual and behavorial competence, and more social acceptance. These children also felt more support from their parents and classmates. The relationship of SPLD to self-concept and social support was maintained after partialing out the influences of actual academic achievement. The importance of helping students more clearly understand the nature of their learning disability is discussed.

When Homework is not Home Work: After-School Programs for Homework Assistance

Homework does not always occur at home. With the perceived demand for higher academic performance has come an increase in the amount and complexity of assigned homework. Given the number of parents who work outside the home, and the need for safe and structured after-school activities, after-school programs have become a venue for helping students with their homework. This article examines the potential of after-school homework-assistance programs within the larger context of after-school programs in general. There is limited data on the outcomes associated with programs that offer homework assistance. The data suggest that after-school homework-assistance programs can serve a protective function for children at-risk for school failure, particularly those who do not have other structured after-school activities or those whose parents do not speak English at home. In general, the availability of homework assistance at home, the quality of the after-school homework program and the nature of the homework assigned will mediate the effect of these programs. Questions for future implementation and evaluation efforts are raised.

Self-Concept and Perceived Social Support among College Students with and without Learning Disabilities:

This study examined the self-perceptions of college students with and without LD. Fifty college students with LD and 50 college students without LD were individually administered the Self-Perception Profile for College Students and People in My Life. Students with LD had lower grades, test scores, and perceptions of their scholastic and intellectual abilities than students without disabilities. However, students did not differ in their perceptions of global self-worth, the importance they placed on academic competence, or their ratings of domain-specific competencies. Students with LD reported more social acceptance and support, and more support from campus organizations, than did students without LD. Support from campus organizations was related to self-esteem for students with LD, while support from instructors was associated with self-esteem for students without LD. Other factors related to self-esteem are discussed.

The Impact of Age, Sex, and Ethnicity on Kindergarten Entry and Retention Decisions.

Kindergarten plays an important role in a child’s socialization to the school system. Increased academic accountability at upper grades has resulted in an “escalation” of the curriculum in many kindergarten programs. As a result of this policy, many parents are holding children out of school until they are more academically “ready.” Kindergarten retention for children who are not ready for first grade has also become a common practice, despite evidence that many children do not benefit from this intervention. The impact of these policies and practices on Anglo and Latino children was the focus of this study. Differences in the age of entry to kindergarten and the use of kindergarten retention as functions of a child’s sex and ethnicity were assessed in three school districts. The impact of these policies on early school failure and alternative methods for addressing diverse student needs are discussed.

Microcomputer Use within Micro-Educational Environments:

An observational study of micro-educational environments (MEEs) and microcomputer use within these environments was conducted across a broad-based, representative sample of special day class, resource room, and mainstream classrooms in Southern California. Mildly handicapped students in special education settings were found to have less variety to their instructional experiences than did either handicapped or nonhandicapped students in the mainstream. That is, students in special education classes evidenced a more dominant pattern of individual, in-classroom, remedial work than did either handicapped or nonhandicapped students in the mainstream. Across all settings, students were highly engaged with the computer, although teachers spent little direct contact time with students during these periods. Microcomputer instruction emerges as a highly motivating vehicle for imparting information, but the effectiveness of these experiences remains to be assessed.

Sexual Abuse, Parental Bonding, Social Support, and Program Retention for Women in Substance Abuse Treatment

Residential programs that provide safe environments and child care can attract perinatal women into treatment. Other factors, however, may prevent some women from benefiting from these programs. Attachment theory suggests that ones early history determines the effectiveness with which one can utilize available social supports. Lower levels of program retention were predicted for women who had been sexually abused and for those who had poor early bonding. Eighty-four women in residential substance abuse treatment programs were studied. Clients who reported sexual abuse also reported lower parental care. Parental care and overprotection were inversely related, and related, in predicted directions, to perceptions of social supports. Sexual abuse alone was associated with time in treatment and the likelihood of graduation. Implications for developing effective counseling programs for women in substance abuse treatment are discussed.

Teacher-control versus student-control over choice of task and reinforcement for students with severe behavior problems

Increasing self-control for students with severe disabilities is an important step toward normalization. The classroom is one setting in which opportunities for self-control can be created. The effects of teacher-control versus student-control over academic task and reinforcement selection were evaluated for three 11-to 13-year-old males with severe behavior problems. Under student-control conditions students were able to select rewards and tasks from lists generated by the teacher; in the teacher-control conditions, the teacher selected rewards and tasks but attempted to make similar selections to those made by the students. An alternating treatments design was implemented. In Phase 1, task completion was the target behavior; in Phase 2 task accuracy was the target behavior. Task performance improved when the student, rather than the teacher, had control over task assignments and choice of reinforcement. While either student control of reinforcement or student control of task assignment resulted in higher performance than did teacher-control, the most effective instructional situation was the two procedures combined. This effect was apparent even when students and teachers selected the same tasks and the same reinforcers. Implications for increasing student-control over some classroom decisions are discussed.

Effects of Motivation and Problem Severity on Court-Based Drug Treatment

This study addresses the effects of motivation and problem severity on outcomes in two court-baseddrug treatment programs. Data were examined for 578 offenders served by a drug court and223served by a drug treatment court mandated through Californias Substance Abuse Crime Prevention Act (SACPA). It was hypothesized that client-reported motivation would be associated with severity of drug problems and that motivation would be positively associated, and severity negatively associated, with program completion and 12-month, postdischarge recidivism. The first hypothesis was supported— motivation for treatment, measured by client-reported need for treatment and acknowledgementof problemseverity, was associatedwith severity of druguse. Program completion in drug court was predicted by client motivation and prior jail time, whereas SACPA completion was predicted by severity of drug problems and prior employment. Recidivism was associated with program completion and problem severity but not treatment motivation in either program. Implications for court-based treatment programs and future research are discussed.