Michael A. Galgano

An update on the management of pseudotumor cerebri

Pseudotumor cerebri, or benign intracranial hypertension, is characterized by intracranial hypertension of unknown etiology typically in obese women <45 years of age, and can be disabling secondary to headaches and visual disturbances. Medical management includes pharmaceuticals that reduce cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) production and lumbar punctures that reduce the CSF volume, both aimed at reducing intracranial pressure. When medical management fails, surgical CSF diverting procedures are indicated. Recently it has been demonstrated that dural sinus stenosis or thrombosis can be responsible for this disease and treated with endovascular venous stent placement. The intent of this educational manuscript is to review the clinical presentation of pseudotumor cerebri patients and discuss the medical, surgical, and endovascular treatment options for this disease. After reading this paper, the reader should be able to: (1) understand the pathophysiological basis of pseudotumor cerebri, (2) describe its presenting signs and symptoms, and (3) discuss the medical, surgical, and endovascular treatment options.

Coil embolization of an intracranial aneurysm in an infant with tuberous sclerosis complex: A case report and literature review

Background: Tuberous sclerosis (TS) is a multiorgan neurocutaneous syndrome. Vascular manifestations are often extracranial. There is a paucity of cases involving TS combined with intracranial aneurysms reported in the literature. As a result, treatment has not been well described. Case Description: We report the case of a 13-month-old female infant with a prior diagnosis of TS that was found to have new onset of left eye ptosis, anisocoria, and papillary mydriasis indicative of left third cranial nerve palsy. A magnetic resonance angiogram (MRA) of the brain revealed a left internal carotid artery (ICA) aneurysm. Endovascular embolization was determined to be the best option for treatment. After a successful balloon test occlusion with neuromonitoring, the left internal carotid artery was sacrificed via coil embolization. Conclusions: This is only the third case report of endovascular coil embolization of an intracranial aneurysm in an infant with TS. We report no complications during the procedure, and the patient was discharged with resolving left third cranial nerve palsy. Neither surgical nor endovascular outcomes have been well described in the literature. Follow-up on this patient will be useful for establishing protocols of treatment.

Osteoblastomas of the spine: a comprehensive review

Osteoblastomas are primary bone tumors with an affinity for the spine. They typically involve the posterior elements, although extension through the pedicles into the vertebral body is not uncommon. Histologically, they are usually indistinguishable from osteoid osteomas. However, there are different variants of osteoblastomas, with the more aggressive type causing more pronounced bone destruction, soft-tissue infiltration, and epidural extension. A bone scan is the most sensitive radiographic examination used to evaluate osteoblastomas. These osseous neoplasms usually present in the 2nd decade of life with dull aching pain, which is difficult to localize. At times, they can present with a painful scoliosis, which usually resolves if the osteoblastoma is resected in a timely fashion. Neurological manifestations such as radiculopathy or myelopathy do occur as well, most commonly when there is mass effect on nerve roots or the spinal cord itself. The mainstay of treatment involves surgical intervention. Curettage has been a surgical option, although marginal excision or wide en bloc resection are preferred options. Adjuvant radiotherapy and chemotherapy are generally not undertaken, although some have advocated their use after less aggressive surgical maneuvers or with residual tumor. In this manuscript, the authors have aimed to systematically review the literature and to put forth an extensive, comprehensive overview of this rare osseous tumor.

A Review of Traumatic Brain Injury Animal Models: Are We Lacking Adequate Models Replicating Chronic Traumatic Encephalopathy?

Traumatic brain injury (TBI) continues to be a significant problem affecting many individuals on a daily basis. There are various subtypes of traumatic brain injuries ranging from life-threatening cerebral edema to the injuries not accounted for by current radiographic imaging. To understand the pathological features of TBI and evaluate potential therapeutic strategies for TBI, various animal models have been created and characterized. Each of the animal models is aimed to mimic a certain type of clinical TBI. In this review article, we critically evaluate the various types of animal models for TBI, and describe which patient populations these models are intended to represent. Mild traumatic brain injury bears the highest representation of TBI in the United States. Chronic traumatic encephalopathy (CTE) is the longterm sequelae of such recurrent mild brain injuries. We particularly emphasize the animal model for CTE in this article because research in this arena tends to significantly lag behind societal awareness of this ever-growing problem amongst our nation’s athletes. Repetitive traumatic brain injuries in humans have the potential to cause significant neurobehavioral and psychiatric disturbances years after the inciting events, as the injuries accumulate over time. Postmortem examination of brains from the patients who experienced repetitive traumatic brain injuries displays pathological profiles of CTE. Creating animal models for CTE have only just begun. The models that culminate in the animal-equivalent of CTE in humans remain to be developed in future studies.

Chronic Traumatic Encephalopathy: The Impact on Athletes.

Chronic traumatic encephalopathy (CTE) is a devastating neuropsychological condition afflicting a small percentage of athletes partaking in high-impact sports. The onset of symptoms lags years behind the inciting events. Repetitive minor head injuries are felt to be the main etiology behind CTE. Routine radiographic imaging generally is unremarkable in cases of CTE. Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI), magnetic resonance spectroscopy (MRS), and diffusion tensor imaging (DTI) are advanced MRI-based sequences that have shown promise in detecting early radiographic findings that may be reflective of CTE. Progressive neuronal loss is the histopathological hallmark of this neurodegenerative disease. Strategizing earlier detection techniques is paramount in delivering optimal care to athletes afflicted with CTE.

Traumatic Brain Injury: Current Treatment Strategies and Future Endeavors

Traumatic brain injury (TBI) presents in various forms ranging from mild alterations of consciousness to an unrelenting comatose state and death. In the most severe form of TBI, the entirety of the brain is affected by a diffuse type of injury and swelling. Treatment modalities vary extensively based on the severity of the injury and range from daily cognitive therapy sessions to radical surgery such as bilateral decompressive craniectomies. Guidelines have been set forth regarding the optimal management of TBI, but they must be taken in context of the situation and cannot be used in every individual circumstance. In this review article, we have summarized the current status of treatment for TBI in both clinical practice and basic research. We have put forth a brief overview of the various subtypes of traumatic injuries, optimal medical management, and both the noninvasive and invasive monitoring modalities, in addition to the surgical interventions necessary in particular instances. We have overviewed the main achievements in searching for therapeutic strategies of TBI in basic science. We have also discussed the future direction for developing TBI treatment from an experimental perspective.

Multimodality Neuromonitoring in Pediatric Neurocritical Care: Review of the Current Resources

Brain insults in children represent a daily challenge in neurocritical care. Having a constant grasp on various parameters in the pediatric injured brain may affect the patient’s outcome. Currently, new advances provide clinicians with the ability to utilize several modalities to monitor brain function. This multi-modal approach allows real-time information, leading to faster responses in management and furthermore avoiding secondary insults in the injured brain.

Affinity of Mucormycosis for Basal Ganglia in Intravenous Drug Users: Case Illustration and Review of Literature

Central nervous system mucormycosis is an aggressive fungal infection often ending in fatality. The usual circumstance is an immunocompromised individual presenting with rapidly progressive rhinocerebral involvement. An extremely rare variant of central nervous system mucormycosis isolated to the basal ganglia in an immunocompetent intravenous drug user is detailed in this manuscript. The patient was aggressively treated with aspiration of the fungal abscess and long-term intravenous antifungal agents.

Refractory Thoracolumbar Cerebrospinal Fluid Leak after Multiple Spinal Ependymoma Resections Treated with External Ventricular Drainage

Study Design Case report. Objective Temporary external ventricular drainage for refractory thoracolumbar cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) leak is not reported in the literature. We describe a recent case that utilized this technique. Methods Retrospective review of the patients case notes was performed and the literature on this subject reviewed. Results The patient underwent multiple complex spinal surgeries for resection of innumerable metastatic ependymoma lesions. A case of significant refractory CSF leak developed and as a last resort a right frontal external ventricular drain was placed. The CSF leak ceased, and the patient was eventually discharged home without further complication. Conclusion External ventricular drainage can be a viable option for temporary proximal CSF diversion to treat refractory thoracolumbar CSF leaks.

Hemorrhagic Pilocytic Astrocytomas in Adults: A Case Report and Literature Review.

Pilocytic astrocytomas are histologically benign tumors, generally found in the pediatric population. Onset of symptoms is generally insidious, predominantly stemming from mass effect upon nearby structures. Patients harboring a pilocytic astrocytoma may present with gait disturbance, headaches, cranial nerve deficits, as well as hydrocephalus, depending on the exact location. Although cases of adult pilocytic astrocytomas in the adult population are described, they are quite uncommon. We present a case of an adult female presenting with acute neurological compromise resulting from an acutely hemorrhagic posterior fossa pilocytic astrocytoma. Her initial neurological assessment was consistent with a Glasgow coma scale of 4T, as the patient was experiencing decerebrate posturing. An emergent external ventricular drain was placed in the emergency department for acute hydrocephalus as a temporizing measure, prior to evacuation of the associated subdural and intratumoral hemorrhages, as well as resection of the mass. After a long hospital course and extensive rehabilitation, the patient made a remarkable recovery and eventually gave birth to a child via Caesarean section three years after her initial presentation.