Michael D. Berzonsky

Identity Style Conceptualization and Measurement

The four personality outcomes classified by Mar-cia s idenltity-status paradigm are conceptualized in terms of three styles of per sonial pr-oblem solvilng atid decision making: (a) An Information Orientation involves actively sear-chingfor, elaborating, and evaluating issue-relevant iniformation; (b) A Normative Orientation focuses on internalized conventions, standards, and expectations; (c) A Diffuse Orientation is characterized by avoiding or procrastinating until the affective cues in a given situation dictate behavioral reactions. Thie validity of a self-report measure of these styles was examined in two studies. The results indicated that the style measures were related to identity-status scores and other personality measures in a theoretically conisistent fashioni. The findin7gs suggest thal a style conceptualization of identity may be useful, especially in the context of life-span identity crises.

Social-Cognitive Aspects of Identity Style: Need for Cognition, Experiential Openness, and Introspection.

This investigation examined the relationship between identity style and various social-cognitive dispositions: need for cognition, openness to experience, and introspection. Identity style refers to the manner in which individuals characteristically process self-relevant information, solve personal problems, and negotiate identity issues. A maximum likelihood factor analysis indicated that self-reported use of a cogitative information-oriented style loaded on two factors. One was marked by information-seeking variables, the other by self-reflective tendencies. A normative style loaded negatively on a bipolarfactor defined by openness to values and actions, suggesting that norm-oriented itndividuals tend to protect themselves from potentially dissonant experience and information. Reported use of a diffuse/avoidant style was associated with a heightened emphasis on a social identity, indicating a reliance on immediate social reinforcements. Results are discussed in terms of a process model of identity formation.

Identity Status, Identity Processing Style, and the Transition to University.

The present study investigated the role that differences in identity orientations may play as students negotiate the transition to a university context. Measures of identity status, identity processing style, and student developmental tasks were administered to 363 entering university freshmen. Results indicated that differences in identity statuses accounted for significant variation in the students’ progress on measures of academic autonomy, educational involvement, and mature interpersonal relationships. Moreover, in most cases these associations were mediated by the students’identity processing style. In general, the findings suggest that students with an informational identity style are best prepared to effectively adapt within a university context, whereas those with a diffuse/avoidant style are most apt to encounter difficulties.

Identity Style and Well-Being: Does Commitment Matter?

A case is made for the role that identity processing styles and identity commitment may play in personal well-being. I argue that research on identity commitment is of interest in its own right and it may also serve to clarify some of the relationships found between identity processing styles and outcome variables. Results from 2 studies are used to illustrate 3 ways in which commitment and processing styles may combine to influence outcome variables: a direct-effects model, a mediated-effects model, and a moderated-effects model. Speculations are advanced regarding different types of identity commitments and the functions they may serve in enhancing well-being and everyday functioning.

Parental Psychological Control and Dimensions of Identity Formation in Emerging Adulthood

Longitudinal data were used to evaluate whether parental psychological control would have a negative impact on identity formation. Perceived psychological control and 4 identity dimensions (i.e., commitment making, exploration in breadth, identification with commitment, and exploration in depth) were assessed 5 times in a college sample. Associations between psychological control and identity (i.e., negative associations with both commitment dimensions and a positive association with exploration in breadth) were stable across time. Further, the developmental pathways of these constructs appeared to be correlated: Increases in psychological control were associated with simultaneous decreases in both commitment dimensions. Finally, reciprocal effects were found: Psychological control inhibited progress in both commitment dimensions, whereas exploration in breadth led to increased psychological control. The authors have provided suggestions for helping emerging adults to approach the task of identity formation.

Identity Processing Orientation, Cognitive and Behavioural Strategies and Well-being

The aim of this study was to investigate interrelationships among the identity negotiation styles that people use, the cognitive and behavioural strategies they deploy, and their sense of subjective well-being. To examine this, 198 American and 109 Finnish college students completed the Identity Style Inventory, the Strategy and Attribution Questionnaire, Rosenberg’s Self-esteem Scale, and the revised Beck’s Depression Inventory. Results showed that people with an information-oriented identity style reported the highest level of self-esteem, those with a normative style had the most stable self-conceptions, and those with a diffuse/avoidant style displayed the highest level of depressive symptomatology. Moreover, dysfunctional cognitive and attributional strategies, such as expecting to fail and engaging in task-irrelevant behaviour, were associated with low self-esteem, unstable self-conceptions, and depressive symptomatology. Finally, the associations between identity processing styles and well-being were found to be mediated by the cognitive strategies that people deploy.

Identity orientation and decisional strategies

Abstract Two studies designed to investigate the relationship between identity orientation and decisional strategies are reported. Identity orientation refers to the way in which individuals approach or manage to avoid the tasks of constructing and revising their self-identity. Study 1 revealed that information-oriented individuals reportedly engaged in systematic, vigilant decisional practices whereas diffuse/avoidant-oriented subjects resorted to maladaptive decisional strategies including procrastination, avoidance, and excuse making. Also, within this sample of late adolescent college students, identity orientation was found to be independent from intellectual ability. Study 2 replicated the major findings of Study 1 and furnished evidence about cognitive aspects of the identity orientations.

A Social-Cognitive Perspective on Identity Construction

This chapter examines identity formation in terms of a social-cognitive model. Identity is conceptualized as a cognitive structure or self-theory, which provides a personal frame of reference for interpreting self-relevant information, solving problems, and making decisions. Identity is also viewed as a process that governs and regulates the social-cognitive strategies used to construct, maintain, and/or reconstruct a sense of personal identity. Three different identity-processing orientations or styles are explicated: Informational, normative, and diffuse-avoidant. Individuals with an informational processing style are skeptical of their own self-views and they intentionally seek out, process, and utilize identity-relevant information to personally resolve identity conflicts. In contrast, individuals with a normative processing style more automatically adopt a collective sense of identity by internalizing the standards and prescriptions of significant others and referent groups. Those with a diffuse-avoidant processing style are reluctant to confront and face up to identity conflicts; they procrastinate and delay as long as possible. Their actions tend to be influenced more by immediate situational rewards and demands than personally informed decisions or normative standards. Empirical evidence from several lines of research on identity-processing style is reviewed including linkages between identity style and a number of identity and cognitive processes; developmental changes in identity styles; and factors that may contribute to individual differences in identity styles such as gender, culture, parental processes, and personality traits. The role that identity-processing styles may play in effective and ineffective self-regulation and in maintaining a coherent sense of self-continuity is considered.

Identity Style, Parental Authority, and Identity Commitment

The role that parental authority patterns and social-cognitive identity styles may play in establishing identity commitments was investigated. The results indicated that family authority and identity style variables combined accounted for 50% of the variation in strength of identity commitment. As hypothesized, the relationship between parental authority and identity commitment was mediated by identity style. The findings are consistent with the view that family authority patterns may contribute to the way in which late adolescents negotiate the task of constructing a sense of identity. Alternative explanations of the findings are considered.

Self-Theorists, Identity Status, and Social Cognition

Erikson’s (1959, 1968) theory of personality provides the context for most recent work on identity formation. The extent to which identity research actually is based on Erikson’s theoretical views is at least questionable, as Looft (1973) noted: Erikson’s concepts are being operationalized and tested by increasing numbers of researchers…. Most typically, however, any mention of Erikson’s theory in research reports is to be found in the “Discussion” section; it is used as a sort of after-the-fact framework in which to discuss data already obtained. (pp. 40–41) Looft was referring specifically to the utilization of Marcia’s (1966) identity-status approach. The status paradigm continues to be the most prevalent means of operationalizing identity formation (Berzonsky, 1981; Bourne, 1978; Marcia, 1980; Waterman, 1982) and it continues to be criticized. For example, Blasi (1987) argues that status classifications distort and trivialize Eriksonian identity processes. Blasi (1987) is correct, of course. But similar criticisms could be leveled at most attempts to operationalize psychological processes and constructs; at the very least, some degree of conceptual richness gets lost in the translation. Yet, operationalize we must, if empirical research is going to be the basis for investigating identity (see Berzonsky, 1986a, 1986b). When Marcia’s paradigm is considered as a heuristic for generating research, its track record is quite good, even impressive.