Michael D. Knierman

Ghrelin octanoylation mediated by an orphan lipid transferase

The peptide hormone ghrelin is the only known protein modified with an O-linked octanoyl side group, which occurs on its third serine residue. This modification is crucial for ghrelins physiological effects including regulation of feeding, adiposity, and insulin secretion. Despite the crucial role for octanoylation in the physiology of ghrelin, the lipid transferase that mediates this novel modification has remained unknown. Here we report the identification and characterization of human GOAT, the ghrelin O-acyl transferase. GOAT is a conserved orphan membrane-bound O-acyl transferase (MBOAT) that specifically octanoylates serine-3 of the ghrelin peptide. Transcripts for both GOAT and ghrelin occur predominantly in stomach and pancreas. GOAT is conserved across vertebrates, and genetic disruption of the GOAT gene in mice leads to complete absence of acylated ghrelin in circulation. The occurrence of ghrelin and GOAT in stomach and pancreas tissues demonstrates the relevance of GOAT in the acylation of ghrelin and further implicates acylated ghrelin in pancreatic function.

FGF-21/FGF-21 receptor interaction and activation is determined by βKlotho

Fibroblast growth factor‐21 (FGF‐21) is a metabolic regulator that can influence glucose and lipid control in diabetic rodents and primates. We demonstrate that βKlotho is an integral part of an activated FGF‐21‐βKlotho‐FGF receptor (FGFR) complex thus a critical subunit of the FGF‐21 receptor. Cells lacking βKlotho did not respond to FGF‐21; the introduction of βKlotho to these cells conferred FGF‐21‐responsiveness and recapitulated the entire scope of FGF‐21 signaling observed in naturally responsive cells. Interestingly, FGF‐21‐mediated effects are heparin independent suggesting that βKlotho plays a role in FGF‐21 activity similar to the one played by heparin in the signaling of conventional FGFs. Moreover, in addition to conferring specificity for FGF‐21, βKlotho appears to support FGF‐19 activity and mediates the receptor selectivity profile of FGF‐19. All together, these results indicate that βKlotho and FGFRs form the cognate FGF‐21 receptor complex, mediating FGF‐21 cellular specificity and physiological effects. J. Cell. Physiol. 215: 1–7, 2008.

Alloxan is an inhibitor of the enzyme O-linked N-acetylglucosamine transferase.

We have previously shown that diabetogenic antibiotic streptozotocin (STZ), an analog of N-acetylglucosamine (GlcNAc), inhibits the enzyme O-GlcNAc-selective N-acetyl-beta-d-glucosaminidase (O-GlcNAcase) which is responsible for the removal of O-GlcNAc from proteins. Alloxan, another beta-cell toxin is a uracil analog. Since the O-GlcNAc transferase (OGT) uses UDP-GlcNAc as a substrate, we investigated whether alloxan might interfere with the process of protein O-glycosylation by blocking OGT, a very abundant enzyme in beta-cells. In isolated pancreatic islets, alloxan almost completely blocked both glucosamine-induced and STZ-induced protein O-GlcNAcylation, suggesting that alloxan indeed was inhibiting (OGT). In order to show definitively that alloxan was inhibiting OGT activity, recombinant OGT was incubated with 0-10 mM alloxan, and OGT activity was measured directly by quantitating UDP-[(3)H]-GlcNAc incorporation into the recombinant protein substrate, nucleoporin p62. Under these conditions, OGT activity was completely inhibited by 1 mM alloxan with half-maximal inhibition achieved at a concentration of 0.1 mM alloxan. Together, these data demonstrate that alloxan is an inhibitor of OGT, and as such, is the first OGT inhibitor described.

Isolation and characterization of the circulating truncated form of PCSK9

Proprotein convertase subtilisin-kexin type 9 (PCSK9) is a secreted protein which regulates serum LDL cholesterol. It circulates in human and rodent serum in an intact form and a major truncated form. Previous in vitro studies involving the expression of human PCSK9 genetic variants and in vivo studies of furin knockout mice suggest that the truncated form is a furin cleavage product. However, the circulating truncated form of PCSK9 has not been isolated and characterized. Utilizing antibodies which bind to either the catalytic domain or the C-terminal domain of PCSK9, the truncated PCSK9 was isolated from serum. MS was used to determine that this form of PCSK9 is a product of in vivo cleavage at Arg218 resulting in pyroglutamic acid formation of the nascent N terminus corresponding to Gln219 of intact PCSK9. We also determined that the truncated PCSK9 in serum lacked the N-terminal segment which contains amino acids critical for LDL receptor binding. A truncated PCSK9, expressed and purified from HEK293 cells with identical composition as the circulating truncated protein, was not active in inhibition of LDL uptake by HepG2 cells. These studies provide a definitive characterization of the composition and activity of the truncated form of PCSK9 found in human serum.

Fast top-down intact protein characterization with capillary zone electrophoresis-electrospray ionization tandem mass spectrometry.

Capillary zone electrophoresis (CZE)-electrospray ionization tandem mass spectrometry (ESI-MS/MS) was applied for rapid top-down intact protein characterization. A mixture containing four model proteins (cytochrome c, myoglobin, bovine serum albumin (BSA), and β-casein) was used as the sample. The CZE-ESI-MS system was first evaluated with the mixture. The four model proteins and five impurities were baseline-separated within 12 min. The limits of detection [signal-to-noise ratio (S/N) = 3] of the four model proteins ranged from 20 (cytochrome c) to 800 amol (BSA). The relative standard deviations of migration time and intensity for the four model proteins were less than 3% and 30%, respectively, in quintuplicate runs. CZE-ESI-MS/MS was then applied for top-down characterization of the mixture. Three of the model proteins (all except BSA) and an impurity (bovine transthyretin) were confidently identified by database searching of the acquired tandem spectra from protein fragmentation. Modifications including phosphorylation, N-terminal acetylation, and heme group binding were identified.

Quantitative Measurement of Intact Alpha-Synuclein Proteoforms from Post-Mortem Control and Parkinson's Disease Brain Tissue by Intact Protein Mass Spectrometry

A robust top down proteomics method is presented for profiling alpha-synuclein species from autopsied human frontal cortex brain tissue from Parkinsons cases and controls. The method was used to test the hypothesis that pathology associated brain tissue will have a different profile of post-translationally modified alpha-synuclein than the control samples. Validation of the sample processing steps, mass spectrometry based measurements, and data processing steps were performed. The intact protein quantitation method features extraction and integration of m/z data from each charge state of a detected alpha-synuclein species and fitting of the data to a simple linear model which accounts for concentration and charge state variability. The quantitation method was validated with serial dilutions of intact protein standards. Using the method on the human brain samples, several previously unreported modifications in alpha-synuclein were identified. Low levels of phosphorylated alpha synuclein were detected in brain tissue fractions enriched for Lewy body pathology and were marginally significant between PD cases and controls (p = 0.03).

Capillary Zone Electrophoresis–Electrospray Ionization-Tandem Mass Spectrometry for Top-Down Characterization of the Mycobacterium marinum Secretome

Capillary zone electrophoresis (CZE) with an electrokinetically pumped sheath-flow nanospray interface was coupled with a high-resolution Q-Exactive mass spectrometer for the analysis of culture filtrates from Mycobacterium marinum. We confidently identified 22 gene products from the wildtype M. marinum secretome in a single CZE–tandem mass spectrometry (MS/MS) run. A total of 58 proteoforms were observed with post-translational modifications including signal peptide removal, N-terminal methionine excision, and acetylation. The conductivities of aqueous acetic acid and formic acid solutions were measured from 0.1% to 100% concentration (v/v). Acetic acid (70%) provided lower conductivity than 0.25% formic acid and was evaluated as low ionic-strength and a CZE–MS compatible sample buffer with good protein solubility.

A proteomic analysis of adult rat bone reveals the presence of cartilage/chondrocyte markers

The non‐mineral component of bone matrix consists of 90% collagenous, 10% non‐collagenous proteins. These proteins regulate mineralization, growth, cell signaling and differentiation, and provide bone with its tensile strength. Expression of bone matrix proteins have historically been studied individually or in small numbers owing to limitations in analytical technologies. Current mass‐spectrometric and separations technologies allow a global view of protein expression patterns in complex samples. To our knowledge, no proteome profile of bone matrix has yet been reported. Therefore, we have used mass spectrometry as a tool to generate a profile of proteins present in the extracellular matrix of adult rat bone. Overall, 108 and 25 proteins were identified with high confidence in the metaphysis and diaphysis, respectively, using a bottom up proteomic technique. Twenty‐one of these proteins were present in both the metaphysis and diaphysis including the bone specific proteins, osteocalcin, type I collagen, osteopontin, osteoregulin, and bone sialoprotein. Interestingly, type II collagen, a protein thought to be exclusively expressed in cartilage, was identified in both the metaphysis and diaphysis. This observation was validated by Western blot. Additionally, the presence of aggrecan, another protein expressed in cartilage was identified in the bone matrix extracts by Western blot. The proteome profile generated using this technology represents an initial survey of the acid soluble proteins of bone matrix which provides a reference for the analysis of deviations from the normal composition due to perturbations or disease states. J. Cell. Biochem. 101: 466–476, 2007.

Fast separation and analysis of reduced monoclonal antibodies with capillary zone electrophoresis coupled to mass spectrometry.

Capillary zone electrophoresis-electrospray ionization-mass spectrometry (CZE-ESI-MS) was used for analysis of reduced antibodies. We first developed a simple protocol to condition commercial linear-polyacrylamide coated capillaries for use in top-down proteomics. We then suspended reduced antibodies in a solution of 35% acetic acid, 50% acetonitrile in water. Heavy and light chains were baseline resolved within 10 min and with 3-30 µg/mL detection limits using a 0.1% aqueous formic acid background electrolyte. Quintuplicate runs of a two-antibody mixture produced relative standard deviations of ∼1% in migration time and 10% in peak amplitudes. Resolution was further improved for the two-antibody mixture by using 5% acetic acid as the background electrolyte, highlighting the potential of capillary electrophoresis-mass spectrometry for analysis of antibody mixtures.

Proteomics of Cerebrospinal Fluid: Methods for Sample Processing

Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) provides an important source of potential biomarkers for brain disorders and therapeutic drug development. Applications of proteomic technology to the identification and quantification of proteins in CSF are increasing rapidly. Key to obtaining reproducible and reliable data about protein levels in CSF are standardization of methods for sample collection, storage, and subsequent sample processing. Methods are described here for all steps of sample processing for a number of different proteomic approaches.