Michael Dickmann

Why do they go? Individual and corporate perspectives on the factors influencing the decision to accept an international assignment

This article explores the motives of individuals to accept international assignments. It uses a combination of qualitative and quantitative research methods to further our understanding of how important a variety of items are in the decision to work abroad. Employing a mutual dependency perspective it contrasts individual motives and organizational perspectives. Organizations significantly underestimate the importance of career, work/life balance and development considerations and overestimate the financial imperative and some family motives. The analysis showed that for individuals some of these factors significantly relate to outcome variables in terms of the perceived career capital accrued from assignments. The study presents a more nuanced picture of influence factors on the decision to go and advocates the use of context-sensitive, multiple perspectives. Practical implications for multinational organizations are discussed.

Exploring the motives of company-backed and self-initiated expatriates

Few studies have investigated the range of issues considered important to the decision to move abroad for expatriates, particularly comparing the company-backed and self-initiated expatriate experiences. This study contributes to an important gap in current research about the drivers of both company-backed and self-initiated expatriation. It reveals details about the diverse motivations to undertake an expatriation and the similarities and differences between these two groups. Through a web-based study, the structure of the motivational components considered influential to the decision to move abroad was explored and quantitatively assessed. Principal component analysis (PCA) suggested an eight-factor model. Scales developed from the model highlighted significant differences between the motivations of the self-initiated and company-backed across three key areas. Location and host reputation motives were significantly more important to the self-initiated suggesting that the desire to move to a particular country and characteristics of that country were primary drivers. Company-backed individuals placed significantly more emphasis on specific career motives including job, skills and career impact. Discussion focuses on the motivational gestalt of the two groups providing a better understanding of the underlying attitudes and actual vocational choices of self-initiated and company-backed individuals. The paper poses a theoretical distinction between the self-initiated and company-backed expatriate, exploring the implications for career and international management theory. Practical implications are rehearsed, exposing areas for further research.

Exploring international work: Types and dimensions of global careers

Contemporary global work comprises a wide and growing array of different modes of international work configurations. In this article, we offer a multidimensional framework for conceptual (theoretical and practical) underpinning of these different modes. Building on the extant literature and the Delphi approach, seven dimensions emerged: (i) time of exposure; (ii) intensity of international contact through work; (iii) breadth of interaction; (iv) legal context; (v) international work instigator; (vi) extent of cultural gap between an individuals country-of-origin and the context in which the international work takes place; and (vii) key cultural-related requirements of ones job/role. To these dimensions, we add individual and organizational contextual variables, e.g. diversity and occupational patterns, as well as career systems with a particular focus on the importance of globally orientated work. Furthermore, we list the major modes of global careers and draw a global career glossary. Both the multidimensional framework and the glossary should facilitate scholars and managers to systematize, analyse, manage and further develop their expatriation and repatriation career strategies, policies and practices.

Addressing international mobility confusion – developing definitions and differentiations for self-initiated and assigned expatriates as well as migrants

The literature on international human resource management indicates a growing array of different forms of international work experiences such as assigned and self-initiated expatriation. However, the criteria for demarcation of these different forms and the term ‘migrant’ are often unclear which leads to an unfortunate lack of comparability of research and a potential confusion for readers. Based on the sociological, psychological and economics literature, this article reviews and synthesizes the existing definitions of the three terms in the current research. A qualitative content analysis and the Rubicon model [Heckhausen, H., and Gollwitzer, P.M. (1987), ‘Thought Contents and Cognitive Functioning in Motivational Versus Volitional States of Mind’, Motivation and Emotion, 1, 101–120.] are used as a theoretical base to structure the findings. The paper creates a criteria-based definition and differentiation of terms and then develops a typology of four different types of expatriates: assigned expatriates, inter-self-initiated expatriates, intra-self-initiated expatriates and drawn expatriates. Implications for management as well as for future research are outlined.

Exposing the symbolic capital of international assignments

This paper explores the symbolic capital attributed to international assignments (IAs). The concept of symbolic capital has been proposed as pivotal in the development and utility of career capital. Although the use of IAs remains a key strategy for global organizations and has been posed as a career advantage for individuals, there is a lack of research which attempts to explore the accumulation and utilization of the capital acquired from such experiences. This paper contributes to the current debate on international careers by examining the symbolic capital of IAs as a key element in international careers. Data from a case study within the financial services sector are used to explore some of the recently highlighted challenges of implementing and experiencing international assignment programmes. Areas for further exploration are proposed.

A typology of international human resource management strategies and processes

This paper develops a framework of international human resource management (IHRM) that moves beyond strategy and structure to focus on processes. The results of six case studies of large German multinational corporations in three countries show different configurations of IHRM strategies and policies. International knowledge flows and coordination varied in intensity, content, direction and mechanisms used. With ‘cognofederate’ IHRM one type was identified that has been hitherto neglected.

North American MNCs and their HR policies in liberal and coordinated market economies

We explore the landscape of HRM in North American MNCs which have been for long characterized as having an express preference for institutionalizing aspects of the home business system when operating aboard. Drawing upon institutional theory, both the USA and Canada are identified as liberal market economies. Building on this, we examine the HR preferences of subsidiaries originating in North America and operating in diverse liberal and coordinated market economies in order to test the extent to which the host context influences the pattern of HR policies and practices pursued, referring predominantly to the literature on USA firms. The results indicate that the pattern of HR practices pursued by North American owned MNCs varies widely depending on whether these North American owned MNCs are operating in liberal or coordinated market economies, lending support to the importance of context as a determinant of the likelihood of, and limits to, the transfer of HRM practices and preferences.

Measuring the return on investment in international assignments: an action research approach

This article progresses the debate on the under-researched topic of return on investment (ROI) in international assignments by complementing and extending recent research streams on the conceptual understanding and challenging nature of measuring ROI. The study reported in this article applies an action research methodology. Working in close collaboration with nine multinational companies, a set of metrics were developed to explore and gauge the ROI of international assignments. An in-depth exploration of the assignment purpose and individual and organizational outcomes over time highlights the importance of context and the dynamic nature of the task of assessing ROI. These themes have significant implications for international assignment strategy policy and practice. Insights from an action research perspective are discussed.

The importance of intelligent career and location considerations

Purpose – Research neglects the role that specific locations play in the decision process to accept international work. This paper aims to explore the career drivers of individuals working as expatriates in London (UK) and to focus on the relationships with specific location attributes.Design/methodology/approach – A total of 11 qualitative in‐depth interviews and 348 quantitative questionnaire responses are used to explore the importance of intelligent career considerations for working as an expatriate in London.Findings – A range of location‐specific factors and intelligent career considerations is identified and quantitatively assessed. The study depicts the links of perceived career factors and location‐specific drivers.Originality/value – Applying the intelligent careers framework, the research goes beyond the normally used broad national factors to explore career capital drivers that motivate individuals to go to a specific city location. In exploring the relatively neglected areas of knowing‐whom a...

Patterns of human resource management in consulting firms

Purpose – The purpose of this paper is to analyse the human resource management (HRM) policies and practices in consulting firms. The paper specifically investigates whether or not the HRM approaches in these firms mirror the two organisational archetypes of professional partnerships (P2) and manage professional businesses (MPB) found in the professional services sector.Design/methodology/approach – The paper draws on interviews with experienced consultants from a sample of 28 large and medium‐sized consulting firms with a presence in Germany and Switzerland. The paper uses both qualitative and quantitative methods to evaluate the data.Findings – The findings in the paper show that P2‐type consulting firms take fundamentally different approaches to HRM from MPB‐type firms. In P2‐type consulting firms, HRM is an integral part of the organisational system and is run in practice by consultants, rather than by specialised HR staff. P2‐type firms emphasise the notion of membership of individuals in an organisa...