Michael E. Zolensky

Mineralogy and Petrology of Comet 81P/Wild 2 Nucleus Samples

The bulk of the comet 81P/Wild 2 (hereafter Wild 2) samples returned to Earth by the Stardust spacecraft appear to be weakly constructed mixtures of nanometer-scale grains, with occasional much larger (over 1 micrometer) ferromagnesian silicates, Fe-Ni sulfides, Fe-Ni metal, and accessory phases. The very wide range of olivine and low-Ca pyroxene compositions in comet Wild 2 requires a wide range of formation conditions, probably reflecting very different formation locations in the protoplanetary disk. The restricted compositional ranges of Fe-Ni sulfides, the wide range for silicates, and the absence of hydrous phases indicate that comet Wild 2 experienced little or no aqueous alteration. Less abundant Wild 2 materials include a refractory particle, whose presence appears to require radial transport in the early protoplanetary disk.

Organics captured from comet 81P/Wild 2 by the Stardust spacecraft

Organics found in comet 81P/Wild 2 samples show a heterogeneous and unequilibrated distribution in abundance and composition. Some organics are similar, but not identical, to those in interplanetary dust particles and carbonaceous meteorites. A class of aromatic-poor organic material is also present. The organics are rich in oxygen and nitrogen compared with meteoritic organics. Aromatic compounds are present, but the samples tend to be relatively poorer in aromatics than are meteorites and interplanetary dust particles. The presence of deuterium and nitrogen-15 excesses suggest that some organics have an interstellar/protostellar heritage. Although the variable extent of modification of these materials by impact capture is not yet fully constrained, a diverse suite of organic compounds is present and identifiable within the returned samples.

Mineralogy and composition of matrix and chondrule rims in carbonaceous chondrites

Abstract The degree of compositional variation of fine-grained minerals displayed by the members within any carbonaceous chondrite group (i.e., CI, CM, CV, CR) is a direct reflection of the range of aqueous alteration assemblages present. Matrix and fine-grained chondrule rims within any particular carbonaceous chondrite are mineralogically nearly identical to one another, but not necessarily similar in bulk elemental composition, even though they have subsequently experienced post-accretional secondary processing (aqueous alteration) under identical conditions. This may indicate preferential alteration of one component, brecciation, exchange of components between rims and matrix, and/or accretion of matrix and rims from mineralogically or compositionally distinct materials. We propose that CO chondrites experienced parent body conditions of low f;O2, low water/rock ratios, and temperatures below 50°C. CR chondrites experienced higher water/rock ratios, potentially higher temperatures (≤150°C), and a wide range of f;O2. The alteration mineralogy of CV chondrites indicates water/rock ratios at the high end (at least) of the range for CR chondrites, Essebi, and MAC 87300. CM chondrites experienced temperatures below 50°C, low f;O2 and low water/rock ratios, except EET 83334, which probably experienced relatively higher f;O2, and B-7904 and Y-86720, which experienced postalteration temperatures in the range 500–700°C. Most CI chondrites experienced temperatures between 50 and 150°C, relatively high water/rock ratios, and variable f;O2, with a late-stage increase in the latter, due possibly to brecciation and consequent release of methane. Y-82162 witnessed post-alteration heating, possibly as high as 400°C.

Itokawa Dust Particles: A Direct Link Between S-Type Asteroids and Ordinary Chondrites

Laboratory analysis of samples returned from an asteroid establishes a direct link between asteroids and meteorites and provides clues to the complex history of the asteroid and its surface. The Hayabusa spacecraft successfully recovered dust particles from the surface of near-Earth asteroid 25143 Itokawa. Synchrotron-radiation x-ray diffraction and transmission and scanning electron microscope analyses indicate that the mineralogy and mineral chemistry of the Itokawa dust particles are identical to those of thermally metamorphosed LL chondrites, consistent with spectroscopic observations made from Earth and by the Hayabusa spacecraft. Our results directly demonstrate that ordinary chondrites, the most abundant meteorites found on Earth, come from S-type asteroids. Mineral chemistry indicates that the majority of regolith surface particles suffered long-term thermal annealing and subsequent impact shock, suggesting that Itokawa is an asteroid made of reassembled pieces of the interior portions of a once larger asteroid.

Chelyabinsk airburst, damage assessment, meteorite recovery, and characterization

Deep Impact? On 15 February 2013, the Russian district of Chelyabinsk, with a population of more than 1 million, suffered the impact and atmospheric explosion of a 20-meter-wide asteroid—the largest impact on Earth by an asteroid since 1908. Popova et al. (p. 1069, published online 7 November; see the Perspective by Chapman) provide a comprehensive description of this event and of the body that caused it, including detailed information on the asteroid orbit and atmospheric trajectory, damage assessment, and meteorite recovery and characterization. A detailed study of a recent asteroid impact provides an opportunity to calibrate the damage caused by these rare events. [Also see Perspective by Chapman] The asteroid impact near the Russian city of Chelyabinsk on 15 February 2013 was the largest airburst on Earth since the 1908 Tunguska event, causing a natural disaster in an area with a population exceeding one million. Because it occurred in an era with modern consumer electronics, field sensors, and laboratory techniques, unprecedented measurements were made of the impact event and the meteoroid that caused it. Here, we document the account of what happened, as understood now, using comprehensive data obtained from astronomy, planetary science, geophysics, meteorology, meteoritics, and cosmochemistry and from social science surveys. A good understanding of the Chelyabinsk incident provides an opportunity to calibrate the event, with implications for the study of near-Earth objects and developing hazard mitigation strategies for planetary protection.

Correlated alteration effects in CM carbonaceous chondrites

Three parameters are proposed to determine the relative extent of alteration in CM chondrites. The mineralogic alteration index monitors the relative progress of coupled substitutions in the progressive alteration of cronstedtite to Mg-serpentine and increases with increasing alteration. To calculate values of this index, an algorithm has been developed to estimate the average matrix phyllosilicate composition in individual CM chondrites. The second parameter is the volume percent of isolated matrix silicates, which decreases with progressive alteration due to mineral hydration. Finally, the volume percent of chondrule alteration monitors the extent of chondrule phyllosilicate production and increases as alteration proceeds. These parameters define the first CM alteration scale that relies on multiple indicators of progressive alteration. The following relative order of increasing alteration is established by this model: Murchison ≤ Bells < Pollen ≤ Murray < Mighei < Nogoya < Cold Bokkeveld. The relative degree of aqueous processing Cochabamba and Boriskino experienced is less precisely constrained, although both fall near the middle of this sequence. A comparison between the mineralogic alteration index and literature values for the whole-rock chemistry of CM chondrites reveals several correlations. A positive, nearly linear correlation between bulk H content and progressive CM alteration suggests an approximately constant production rate of new phyllosilicates relative to the mineralogical transition from cronstedtite to Mg-serpentine. The abundance of trapped planetary 36Ar decreases systematically in progressively altered CM chondrites, suggesting the wholesale destruction of primary noble gas carrier phase (s) by aqueous reactions. Because low temperature fluid-rock reactions are generally associated with large isotopic mass fractionation factors, we also compared our model predictions with δ18O values for bulk CM samples. Although some of these data are poorly resolved, the order of increasing δ18O values approximates the order of increasing alteration predicted by our model parameters. Multiple correlations between diverse alteration parameters strongly suggest that (a) different CM chondrites experienced similar kinds of processes and conditions, and (b) CM materials experienced in situ alteration on the CM parent body or bodies.

The impact and recovery of asteroid 2008 TC 3

In the absence of a firm link between individual meteorites and their asteroidal parent bodies, asteroids are typically characterized only by their light reflection properties, and grouped accordingly into classes. On 6 October 2008, a small asteroid was discovered with a flat reflectance spectrum in the 554–995 nm wavelength range, and designated 2008 TC3 (refs 4–6). It subsequently hit the Earth. Because it exploded at 37 km altitude, no macroscopic fragments were expected to survive. Here we report that a dedicated search along the approach trajectory recovered 47 meteorites, fragments of a single body named Almahata Sitta, with a total mass of 3.95 kg. Analysis of one of these meteorites shows it to be an achondrite, a polymict ureilite, anomalous in its class: ultra-fine-grained and porous, with large carbonaceous grains. The combined asteroid and meteorite reflectance spectra identify the asteroid as F class, now firmly linked to dark carbon-rich anomalous ureilites, a material so fragile it was not previously represented in meteorite collections.

Chondrulelike Objects in Short-Period Comet 81P/Wild 2

The Stardust spacecraft returned cometary samples that contain crystalline material, but the origin of the material is not yet well understood. We found four crystalline particles from comet 81P/Wild 2 that were apparently formed by flash-melting at a high temperature and are texturally, mineralogically, and compositionally similar to chondrules. Chondrules are submillimeter particles that dominate chondrites and are believed to have formed in the inner solar nebula. The comet particles show oxygen isotope compositions similar to chondrules in carbonaceous chondrites that compose the middle-to-outer asteroid belt. The presence of the chondrulelike objects in the comet suggests that chondrules have been transported out to the cold outer solar nebula and spread widely over the early solar system.

Elemental compositions of comet 81P/Wild 2 samples collected by Stardust

We measured the elemental compositions of material from 23 particles in aerogel and from residue in seven craters in aluminum foil that was collected during passage of the Stardust spacecraft through the coma of comet 81P/Wild 2. These particles are chemically heterogeneous at the largest size scale analyzed (∼180 ng). The mean elemental composition of this Wild 2 material is consistent with the CI meteorite composition, which is thought to represent the bulk composition of the solar system, for the elements Mg, Si, Mn, Fe, and Ni to 35%, and for Ca and Ti to 60%. The elements Cu, Zn, and Ga appear enriched in this Wild 2 material, which suggests that the CI meteorites may not represent the solar system composition for these moderately volatile minor elements.

Three-Dimensional Structure of Hayabusa Samples: Origin and Evolution of Itokawa Regolith

Laboratory analysis of samples returned from an asteroid establishes a direct link between asteroids and meteorites and provides clues to the complex history of the asteroid and its surface. Regolith particles on the asteroid Itokawa were recovered by the Hayabusa mission. Their three-dimensional (3D) structure and other properties, revealed by x-ray microtomography, provide information on regolith formation. Modal abundances of minerals, bulk density (3.4 grams per cubic centimeter), and the 3D textures indicate that the particles represent a mixture of equilibrated and less-equilibrated LL chondrite materials. Evidence for melting was not seen on any of the particles. Some particles have rounded edges. Overall, the particles’ size and shape are different from those seen in particles from the lunar regolith. These features suggest that meteoroid impacts on the asteroid surface primarily form much of the regolith particle, and that seismic-induced grain motion in the smooth terrain abrades them over time.