Michael Eraut

Informal learning in the workplace

This paper focuses mainly on theoretical frameworks for understanding and investigating informal learning in the workplace, which have been developed through a series of large‐ and small‐scale projects. The main conclusions are included but readers are referred to other publications for more detailed accounts of individual projects. Two types of framework are discussed. The first group seeks to deconstruct the ‘key concepts’ of informal learning, learning from experience, tacit knowledge, transfer of learning and> intuitive practice to disclose the range of different phenomena that are embraced by these popular terms. The second group comprises frameworks for addressing the three central questions that pervaded the research programme: what is being learned, how is it being learned and what are the factors that influence the level and directions of the learning effort?This paper focuses mainly on theoretical frameworks for understanding and investigating informal learning in the workplace, which have been developed through a series of large‐ and small‐scale projects. The main conclusions are included but readers are referred to other publications for more detailed accounts of individual projects. Two types of framework are discussed. The first group seeks to deconstruct the ‘key concepts’ of informal learning, learning from experience, tacit knowledge, transfer of learning and> intuitive practice to disclose the range of different phenomena that are embraced by these popular terms. The second group comprises frameworks for addressing the three central questions that pervaded the research programme: what is being learned, how is it being learned and what are the factors that influence the level and directions of the learning effort?

Learning from other people in the workplace

This paper draws primarily on an ESRC‐TLRP longitudinal study of early career professional learning, which focused on the first three years of employment of newly qualified nurses, graduate engineers seeking chartered status and trainee chartered accountants. The first section introduces the theoretical and methodological base provided by previous projects, then proceeds to explore an epistemology of practice, using three dimensions: (1) four key elements of practice—situational assessment, decision‐making, actions and meta‐cognitive monitoring; (2) the mode of cognition and its dependence on time and prior learning; and (3) the context, its influence on mode of cognition and its affordances for learning. The central section presents the project’s findings on modes of learning through a new framework, which divides learning processes according to whether the object is perceived to be learning or working, then adds a list of shorter learning activities used within both types of process, including various types of mediating artifact. The final section summarises the project’s findings on factors affecting learning, then draws practical conclusions from the project’s work.

Knowledge creation and knowledge use in professioal contexts

ABSTRACT This paper presents a radical reconceptualisation of the theory-practice problem in initial and continuing professional education, based on considering the influence of academic and professional contexts on knowledge operation and knowledge use. The first part is concerned with making important conceptual distinctions, the second with implications for the practice of professional education and the relationships between higher education and the professions. The conceptual section of the paper first distinguishes different kinds of professional knowledge with particular attention to generalisability (knowledge of particular cases, knowledge of precepts, knowledge of theory) and explicitness (codified knowledge, knowledge embedded in traditions, craft Knowledge, tacit knowledge, etc.). Then it takes Broudys four modes of knowledge use—replication, application, interpretation, association—and illustrates their significance for understanding the theory-practice relationship in a number of professions...

Schon Shock: a case for refraining reflection‐in‐action?

Abstract This paper assesses the contribution of Donald Schons The Reflective Practitioner to thinking about professional knowledge and expertise. While containing an important original idea, the notion of reflection‐in‐action, Schon seems more concerned with finding examples to counter what he calls the technical rationality paradigm. Hence he neither analyses everyday practice nor attempts to consider how reflective processes might serve different purposes or vary from one context to another. Most of his examples fail to provide evidence of reflection‐in‐action and none of them relate to crowded settings like classrooms. Indeed it is difficult to see how one could distinguish reflection‐in‐action from reflection‐on‐action when the action is cool and deliberate rather than hot and rapid. Three recommendations are made for reframing Schons account of reflection. First, to redefine the key prepositions so that in refers to context on refers to focus and for refers to purpose. All Schons examples relate ...

Workplace-Focused Learning: Perspectives on Continuing Professional Education and Human Resource Development

The problem and the solution. Learning in the workplace is a major focus for both continuing professional education and human resource development. Yet too often providers and researchers in both areas pay little attention to the learning that actually happens within the work context. In this article, learning in the workplace is analyzed through an examination of the history, assumptions, stakeholders, foci, approaches, and issues in continuing professional education and human resource development. This analysis leads to suggestions for an increased focus on learning.

Knowledge, Working Practices, and Learning

I define personal knowledge as ‘what individual persons bring to situations that enables them to think, interact and perform.’ It can be observed only through a series of holistic performances, each involving several kinds of knowledge. Lifelong learning can be tracked through entries on learning trajectories . Professional practices grow through increasing recognition of situations, development of routines, reflection and discussion of new or complex problems. Most learning events are embedded in normal work, so access to learning depends on the nature of the work environment and the behaviour of those involved. The key factors affecting informal learning are appropriate levels of challenge and support, confidence and commitment, and personal agency . These factors, in turn, are influenced by the allocation, structuring, and perceived value of the work. Managers should be appraised on their crucial role in developing learning.

Promoting innovation in teaching and learning: Problems, processes and institutional mechanisms

This paper examines constraints on innovation in teaching and learning in higher education, and institutional mechanisms for trying to promote such innovation. Innovation is considered as a process of change rather than the dissemination of novel ideas. Factors such as teaching climate, resource allocation and consultancy support are considered. The dangers of a mismatch between “innovations” and problems are discussed, and the importance of giving adequate attention to problem diagnosis is stressed. A possible model incorporating these emphases is outlined in brief.

The Role and Use of Vocational Qualifications

Most vocational qualifications have been gazumped by general educational qualifications that have higher selection value, and their relative esteem is self-perpetuating. The use value of vocational qualifications depends on (1) the appropriateness of, and interconnection between, their work-related and work-based components, and (2) further work-based learning after qualification to ensure that the acquired knowledge and skills can be used in the particular circumstances and conditions of the current workplace. The NVQ experience has confirmed that detailed national specifications cannot match the diversity of workplace learning needs, so a more flexible approach is needed. Qualification policy should be based on evidence of fitness for purpose, rather than political troubleshooting or wishful thinking; and backed by a programme of incisive research.

The Characterisation and Development of Professional Expertise in School Management and in Teaching

Michael Eraut is a Professor of Education at the University of Sussex. He argues that professional education in teaching and management lacks an adequate account of the nature of the expertise being developed and hence a map of progression and a theory of how expertise is acquired. As such his paper addresses the problem by exploring the interaction between (1) different types of professional knowledge and (2) different types of professional processes. His text concludes with recommendations for developing expertise in four main

Informal learning in the workplace: evidence on the real value of work‐based learning (WBL)

Purpose – This paper seeks to understand the role of informal learning in the workplace by observation of samples of professional workers.Design/methodology/approach – The research started by shared descriptions of the work being followed before asking about the roles of other people whom they met at work, and then asking about what the observer might have seen on another occasion. This was followed by discussing the nature of the researched persons work with significant others in the workplace.Findings – The most important theoretical finding was that most people did not describe informal learning as learning. The study managed to handle this by talking about learning as a by‐product. Then both working and learning could be talked about at the same time. Most of this learning came from people working together in a range of work activities.Research limitations/implications – Support and feedback were critically important for confidence, learning, retention and commitment, and the right level of challenge...