Michael F. Ashby

Chapter 14 – The Vision: A Circular Materials Economy

We live at present with a largely linear materials economy. Our use of natural resources is characterized by the sequence “take – make – use – dispose” as materials progress from mine, through product, to landfill. Increasing population, rising affluence and the limited capacity for the planet to provide resources and absorb waste argue for a transition towards a more circular way of using materials. When products come to the end of their lives the materials they contain are still there. Repair, reuse and recycling (the three “Rs”) can return these to active use. Repair, reuse and recycling are not new ideas; they have been used for centuries to recirculate materials and, in less-developed economies, they still are. But in developed nations they have dwindled as the cost of materials fell and that of labor rose over time, making all three Rs uneconomic. So what is novel about the contemporary idea of a circular materials economy? Haven’t we been there before? n nThe “circularity” concept is a way thinking that looks not just for efficiencies but also for new ways of providing the functions we need. In the last decade momentum has gathered about this transition. The idea of deploying rather than consuming materials, of using them not once but many times, and of redesign to make this a reality has economic as well as environmental appeal. Governments now sign up to programs to foster circular economic ideas and mechanisms begin to appear to advance them. This chapter examines the background, the successes and the difficulties of implementing a circular materials economy.

Chapter 2 – What is a “Sustainable Development”?

“Sustainability” is an elusive term, one that (it sometimes seems) can mean whatever you want it to mean. A “sustainable development” is a little easier to pin down – it is any development that moves us from a less sustainable to a more sustainable state – but even this has a large number of dimensions. Three of the more important ones can be summarized as the “3Ps”: prosperity, people and planet; we encountered them in Chapter 1 as economics, society and environment. In this chapter we re-interpret the 3Ps as three fundamental “capitals”; manufactured and financial capital, human and social capital, and natural capital. The three capitals form one of the building blocks of the method developed in the next two chapters. The other building blocks include the objective that motives the development, the stakeholders who are in someway involved or influenced by it, and the facts that characterize it. This chapter introduces these components. They come together in Chapter 3.

Chapter 13 – Bamboo for Sustainable Flooring

Bamboo is a grass, not a tree. It is exceptionally fast growing, allowing it to be harvested for construction when 4–7xa0years old. The world production of bamboo is roughly 1.4xa0billion tonnes per year. International trade in bamboo in 2005 was valued at

Chapter 1 – Background: Materials, Energy and Sustainability

2.5xa0billion and is projected to rise to

Chapter 6 – Corporate Sustainability and Materials

20xa0billion by 2020. About 2.5 billion people in the world depend on it economically. These are big numbers – few other materials are used in such quantities. n nProponents of bamboo claim that its properties are comparable to those of hardwoods. In Europe and North America bamboo is available as laminated bamboo board, a higher value-added product and better adapted for construction purposes. The proponents argue for its greater use in construction in Europe because it is sustainable and because it is sourced from some of the world’s least prosperous nations where it creates employment. The Case Study considers a possible scenario based on this information: that of doubling the use of bamboo board for flooring and walls in domestic and office buildings in Europe.

Chapter 7 – Introduction to Case Studies

Sustainable development is a systems problem. Visionary individuals (Malthus, Rachel Carsons, Meadows) perceived both this and the risks it implies, but it was not until the 1980s that the importance of thinking in holistic terms took hold. Since then numerous studies, most recently those of the International Panel on Climate Change, have highlighted the potential problems for the future inherent in the way we live at present. n nMaterials are an important part of this system. Recent technological developments, particularly in mobile communication, information processing, entertainment and defence have made them more so. We are now dependent on access to most of the periodic table and while the ores from which some of its members are drawn are plentiful, others are scarce, often localised in unsympathetic surroundings and controlled by regimes that may have other plans for them. And refining and synthesising materials is energy intensive – some 21% of all the energy we use is used to make materials. n nThe global population is increasing, and the affluence of this population is rising at the same time. With increased affluence comes increase in consumption, so, unless we can find ways to stop it, the consumption of materials and energy will rise considerably faster than the population itself. The vision expressed in the Brundtland Commission report – that of providing for the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their needs – is one that almost everyone would accept. But a consensus on how to achieve it is harder to achieve.

Chapter 10 – Case Study: Electric Cars

Until recently the strategic planning of many materials-intensive corporations and companies prioritized the financial returns to their owners and shareholders. Narrow focus on financial return alone may bring success in the short term. But there is now an awareness that the longer-term financial success of a company depends on securing the resources in a broader sense: assured access to raw materials, human skills, a marketplace for its products and a reputation that supports and expands its market share. Success, in this view, is measured not only in financial terms but also in terms of stewardship of the resources on which the company draws, the welfare of its employees and the health of the local economy of the regions in which the company does business. n nIt should be remembered that companies are not people. The primary responsibility of a public company remains that of maximizing return to shareholders while acting within the law – but this is not incompatible with the broader view just described. Increasingly, corporations and companies see their social and environmental responsibilities not as “optional extras” but as business imperatives able to create competitive advantage and build respect, trust and loyalty. n nThis chapter explores these challenges and responses to them.

Chapter 5 – Materials Supply-Chain Risk

The six chapters that follow this one are case studies. Each investigates an articulation of sustainable development using the five-step method developed in Chapters 3 and 4xa0Chapter 3xa0Chapter 4. The topics are n• nBiopolymers to replace oil-based plastics n n• nWind farms as a source of renewable energy n n• nElectric cars as the future for clean personal transport n n• nLighting – incandescent, fluorescent, LED n n• nSolar PV for low-carbon power n n• nBamboo as a sustainable building material n n n n nThey are designed for project-based teaching. Each ends with suggestions for related projects.

Chapter 9 – Wind Farms

The global production of cars in 2011 was 60xa0million units per year, growing at 3.3% per year. Cars account for 74% of production of motor vehicles and at present are responsible for about 20% of all the carbon released into the atmosphere. National governments implement policies to reduce this source of emissions through taxation and incentives. One of the incentives is to subsidise electric vehicles (EVs). n nFrom a materials point of view, the major differences between electric and internal combustion (IC) cars are the replacement of the IC engine with electric motors that, at present, use neodymium–boron permanent magnets and the replacement of gasoline or diesel fuel by batteries. It is estimated that the global production of electric cars – either hybrids, plug-in hybrids, or fully EVs – will exceed 16xa0million per year in 2021 and will account for 20% of all vehicles manufactured. EVs, particularly, are seen as the way to decarbonise road transport. France, Germany and the UK all have target EV sales of around 10% of all car sales by 2020 with the aim of reducing carbon emissions. Is this a realistically achievable sustainable development on a global scale? This Case Study explores this question.

Chapter 12 – Solar PV

The chapter is about supply chain security and the risk of disruption of material markets. n nEven a sustainable economy needs materials. A century ago, developed nations sourced materials locally or from colonies or dependencies under their control. Today, materials are sourced and traded globally between independent nations, many with their own developed or developing manufacturing base. This change brings with it supply chain risks that escalate as affluence and demand grow. These concerns prompt nations to classify risk-prone materials with high commercial or strategic importance as “critical”. Many of these critical materials come from one or a very few source nations, exposing their supply chain to further restriction for geo-economic or geo-political reasons. These supply chain risks cause concern at the corporate as well as the national level. n nSustainability in a material-dependent industry, from a corporate viewpoint, means assuring reliable access to affordable raw materials. A recent survey of the CEOs of manufacturing companies in Europe found that 80% of them saw future raw material shortages and rising material prices as risks to their business. Similar surveys highlight the concerns created by the ballooning body of legislation that restricts or bans, for health or environmental reasons, an increasing range of materials and chemicals. Further legislation sets new standards for ethical material sourcing, product safety, consumer protection and responsibility for materials at the end of product life. Complying with this legislation can be burdensome and expensive, yet failure to comply can mean loss of business. Thus the skills of a future engineer must include not only technical competence but also the ability to manage risk.