Michael Harrington

Aspects of Working Memory in L2 Learning.

This article reviews research on working memory (WM) and its use in second language (L2) acquisition research. Recent developments in the model and issues surrounding the operationalization of the construct itself are presented, followed by a discussion of various methods of measuring WM. These methods include word and digit span tasks, reading, listening and speaking span tasks. We next outline the role proposed for WM in explaining individual differences in L2 learning processes and outcomes, including sentence processing, reading, speaking, lexical development and general proficiency. Key findings are that WM is not a unitary construct and that its role varies depending on the age of the L2 learners, the task and the linguistic domain. Some tests of WM may in fact be tests of differences in ability to attend to aspects of the L2. Future research will focus on matching tests of WM more closely with linguistic tasks and using more standardized, replicable measures of WM in new areas including writing in non-alphabetic scripts, instructional interventions and cognitive neuropsychology.

What Gets Processed in Processing Instruction? A Commentary on Bill VanPatten’s “Processing Instruction: An Update”

In this article we respond to VanPattens update of the findings for processing instruction. We begin by questioning the explanatory adequacy of the model of input processing that VanPatten has proposed and that underpins his pedagogic proposals. We question both the validity of the limited–capacity, single–resource model of attention he proposes for second language classroom learning, and also the details of the mechanisms he argues are implicated in second language processing. We then arguefor alternative explanations of the effects found for input processing instruction and against VanPattens claim that the studies he reviews are true replications of earlier findings.Throughout we argue that further specification of cognitive resources, processing mechanisms,and conditions of learning operationalized in putative replications areessential if research into input processing instruction is to be explanatory, and cumulative, as VanPatten claims it is.

The Yes-No test as a measure of receptive vocabulary knowledge

Performance on the Yes/No test (Huibregtse et al., 2002) was assessed as a predictor of scores on the Vocabulary Levels Test (VLT), a standard test of receptive second language (L2) vocabulary knowledge (Nation, 1990). The use of identical items on both tests allowed a direct comparison of test performance, with alternative methods for scoring the Yes/No test also examined (Huibregtse et al., 2002). Overall, performance on both tests by English L2 university students (n - 36) was similar. Mean test accuracy on the various Yes/No methods ranged from 76-82%, comparable to VLT performance at 83%. However, paired t-tests showed the scoring methods used to correct raw hit performance increased the difference between the Yes/No test and criterion VLT scores to some degree. All Yes/No scores were strong predictors of VLT performance, regardless of method used, r = .8. Raw hit rate was the best predictor of VLT performance, due in part to the >5% false alarm rate. The low false alarm rate may be due to the participants, drawn primarily from non-Latin alphabet first languages (L1s), and the nature of the instructions. The results indicate the Yes/No test is a valid measure of the type of L2 vocabulary knowledge assessed by the VLT, with implications for classroom application.

CALL begins with a C: Interaction in computer-mediated language learning

Abstract Recent calls have been made to anchor CALL theory and practice in the Instructed SLA/Interaction Account of language learning (Chapelle, 1997, This move, it is argued, will provide CALL with a principled framework for research and theory development. Although we agree with these authors that much current CALL research lacks a transparent and coherent theoretical foundation, we believe the Interaction Account, as it stands, has significant shortcomings when applied directly to CALL. At issue is the nature of second language learning, the relationship between face-to-face and computer-mediated interaction, and the effects of technology on second language communication and learning. We argue that the Interaction Account evokes an overly narrow view of CALL, and that it does not differentiate sufficiently between the types of CALL now commonly practised, particularly with regard to the distinctive characteristics of the modes available under the rubric of Computer-Mediated Communication (i.e. email, discussion lists, Internet Relay Chat, video-conferencing).

Recognition vocabulary knowledge as a predictor of academic performance in an English as a foreign language setting

This paper presents findings of a study of recognition vocabulary knowledge as a predictor of written Academic English Proficiency (AEP) and overall Academic Achievement in an English medium higher education program in an English-as-a-Foreign-Language (EFL) context. Vocabulary knowledge was measured using a Timed YES/NO (TYN) test. AEP was assessed using an academic writing test based on IELTS. Performance on these measures was correlated with Grade Point Average (GPA) as a measure of academic achievement for Arabic L1 users (N=70) at an English-medium College of Applied Sciences in the Sultanate of Oman. Vocabulary size and speed correlated with both academic writing and GPA measures. The combined vocabulary and writing measures were also examined as predictors of academic achievement. The TYN test is discussed as reliable, cost and time effective general measure of AEP and for showing if students have the necessary vocabulary knowledge to undertake study in a tertiary level English medium program.

Second-Language Acquisition

As H. Douglas Brown pointed out in his review (1980), the field of second language acquisition [SLA] has emerged as its own discipline in the 1980s. A somewhat eclectic discipline, research in SLA involves methodologies drawn from linguistics, sociolinguistics, education, and psychology. Theoretical models are equally diverse (McLaughlin 1987), but in general a distinction is possible between representational and processing approaches (Carroll in press). Representational approaches focus on the nature and organization of second-language knowledge and how this information is represented in the mind of the learner. Processing approaches focus on the integration of perceptual and cognitive Processes with the learners second-languages knowledge. This distinction is used here for purposes of exposition, although it is recognized that some approaches combine both representational and processing features, as any truly adequate model of second-language learning must.

INPUT-DRIVEN LANGUAGE LEARNING

Input-driven models provide an explicit and readily testable account of language learning. Although we share Elliss view that the statistical structure of the linguistic environment is a crucial and, until recently, relatively neglected variable in language learning, we also recognize that the approach makes three assumptions about cognition and language learning that are not universally shared. The three assumptions concern (a) the language learner as an intuitive statistician, (b) the constraints on what constitute relevant surface cues, and (c) the redescription problem faced by any system that seeks to derive abstract grammatical relations from the frequency of co-occurring surface forms and functions. These are significant assumptions that must be established if input-driven models are to gain wider acceptance. We comment on these issues and briefly describe a distributed, instance-based approach that retains the key features of the input-driven account advocated by Ellis but that also addresses shortcomings of the current approaches.

Vocabulary recognition skill as a screening tool in English-as-a-Lingua-Franca university settings

Research has shown that vocabulary recognition skill is a readily measured and relatively robust predictor of second language performance in university settings in English-speaking countries. This study builds on that research by developing an understanding of the relationship between word recognition skill and Academic English performance in English-medium instruction (EMI) university programs in English-as-a-lingua-franca (ELF) contexts. The use of a Timed Yes/No (TYN) test of vocabulary recognition skill was assessed as a screening tool in two EMI university foundation programs in an Arab Gulf State: in a metropolitan state university (N = 93) and a regional private institution (N = 71). Pearson correlation coefficients between the TYN test and performance on university placement and final test scores ranged between 0.3 and 0.6 across the two groups and by gender within those groups. This study indicates the TYN test measures have predictive value in university ELF settings for screening purposes. The trade-off between validity, reliability, usability and the cost-effectiveness of the TYN test in academic ELF settings are discussed with consideration of test-takers’ digital literacy levels.

The Relationship Between Vernacular Language Study and Academic English Proficiency in Fiji

This study examines the relationship between academic achievement in the vernacular languages and English in Fiji. For many South Pacific countries with a colonial history, Fiji included, the accommodation of vernacular literacy was, and remains a complex issue. One important aspect of this issue is the role of teaching the vernacular languages, Fijian or Hindi, alongside instruction in English. In particular, there is the long-held view by many sectors of the Fijian community that vernacular language study has a detrimental effect on academic performance in English. This study compares performance by Fijian students who study a vernacular language in addition to the required English subject, and those students who only study English. Data on language and academic achievement were obtained from the Ministry of Education administered Fiji Junior Certificate Examination (FJCE) for 10 schools for the year 1994. Correlational analysis and analysis of variance were used to assess the relationships between language study, ethnicity, and academic achievement. The findings of this study do not support the belief that the simultaneous study of a vernacular language negatively affects academic performance in English.

Fractionating English language proficiency: policy and practice in Australian higher education

ABSTRACT Policy-makers and practitioners in Australian higher education increasingly view English language proficiency (ELP) as a tripartite construct consisting of English proficiency for academic study, interpersonal communication, and more recently, the workplace. This paper examines this assumption and identifies the significant implications it has for the increasingly urgent issue of ELP support in Australian universities. The main focus for this support is international students who do not use English as their first language, but it is also increasingly relevant to domestic students. While the focus is Australian, the issues raised are highly germane to English-medium higher education internationally. After providing an overview of developments in policy and practice over the past decade, we review the limited linguistic and acquisition evidence for positing the three types, much of which is based on contrasting cognitive and social perspectives on learning. The paucity of research raises construct and content validity issues which are then discussed, and key areas for future research identified. These include research investigating the construct and content validity of different tripartite models, and consolidation of the empirical basis for the implementation and evaluation of strategies for ELP support, including that which is embedded or separate from curricula, or generic or specific to disciplines.