Michael J. Boulton

Concurrent and Longitudinal Relations between Children's Playground Behavior and Social Preference, Victimization, and Bullying

Prior research with contrived play groups suggests that how children interact with one another can influence their social relationships, but few studies have been carried out to determine if this is the case in naturalistic settings. This study examined the concurrent and longitudinal links between four observational measures of 8- to 9-year-old childrens (N = 89) playground behaviors/peer contacts (Alone, Conversation, Group Size, and Network) and three sociometric measures of their peer relationships (Social Preference, Bully, and Victim). The latter were assessed at 2 points within a school year, the first corresponding with the playground observations and the second 5 months later. Several of the concurrent correlations were found to be significant. For boys, Group Size was positively correlated with Bully Score and Social Preference Score, but negatively correlated with Victim Score; and time Alone was positively correlated with Victim Score. For girls, time Alone was positively correlated with Victim Score; Network was negatively correlated with Bully Score but positively correlated with Social Preference Score; and Group Size was positively correlated with Social Preference Score. The longitudinal analyses indicated that for boys, elevated levels of time Alone and, separately, Conversation, predicted the highest increases in Victim Score. For girls, low levels of time Alone predicted the sharpest increases in Social Preference Score. There was also some marginally significant evidence, p < .06, that among girls, high levels of time Alone predicted the greatest increases in Bully Score, and high levels of Conversation predicted the greatest increases in Social Preference Score. The theoretical and practical importance of these links between childrens nonaggressive playground behaviors and their emerging peer relationships are discussed.

Rough-and-Tumble Play, Aggression and Dominance: Perception and Behaviour in Children’s Encounters

Rough-and-tumble play is a distinctive form of behaviour. Although it appears superficially similar to fighting, there is considerable evidence that it differs in terms of causation and intent. A numb

Evaluating the Effectiveness of a Social Skills Training (SST) Programme for Victims of Bullying.

Several programmes have been developed to help support victims of bullying, but few have been formally evaluated. On the basis of previous research and from a review of existing programmes, a Social Skills Training (SST) Programme was developed for victims of bullying, and the effectiveness of this intervention was evaluated. Twenty-eight children (aged nine to 11 years) took part in the SST Programme – 15 in the experimental group and 13 in the waiting-list control group. A Peer Nomination Inventory was used to assess social skills problems, peer victimization and friendship/peer acceptance. In addition, a number of psychosocial adjustment variables (i.e. depression, anxiety, self-esteem) were assessed, using self-report. The measures were completed at three time points over the course of an academic year. It was found that there was an increase in ‘global self-worth’ (i.e. self-esteem) for the experimental group (compared to the control group). However, there were no other significant improvements, e.g. in terms of social skills problems or victim status. These findings have important implications for interventions to tackle the negative effects associated with bullying in schools.

Short-Term Longitudinal Relationships Between Children's Peer Victimization/Bullying Experiences and Self-Perceptions Evidence for Reciprocity

This study tested transactional models to explain the short-term longitudinal links between self-perceptions and involvement in bullying and victimization among 115 9- to 10-year-old children. Self-perceptions were measured with Harter’s Self-Perception Profile for Children (six sub-scales) and bullying/victimization by means of peer nominations. Data were collected at two points, separated by five months, within a school year. Earlier victimization significantly negatively predicted changes in Global self-worth, social acceptance and, for girls only, physical appearance scores, and earlier social acceptance scores significantly negatively predicted changes in victimization, and bullying. Additionally, earlier bullying positively predicted changes in scholastic competence scores, and among girls but not boys there was a near significant tendency for earlier bullying to negatively predict changes in behavioural conduct scores. These findings challenge a common view that victimization, and separately bullying, are responsible for low self-perceptions. Rather, they add to the view that negative peer experiences and maladjusted outcomes are mutually related over time. The theoretical and practical implications of such a view are discussed.

A comparison of structural and contextual features of middle school children's playful and aggressive fighting

Abstract This study compared structural and contextual features of playful [rough-and tumble play (r/t)] and aggressive fighting based on direct playground observations of two classes of 8 and two classes of 11 year old children. Most bouts of r/t and aggressive fighting were dyadic, but significantly more bouts of the former involved three or more participants than the latter. Rough-and-tumble play was found to contain more individual action patterns than aggressive fighting, but the latter was more varied in form than some earlier studies had shown. Both wrestling and chasing were seen more in r/t than aggressive fighting, but restraint in bouts of chasing was not more common in playful chasing than aggressive chasing. Positive and neutral facial expressions were more characteristic of r/t, and negative facial expressions were more characteristic of aggressive fighting. Rough-and-tumble initiations were more likely to receive an r/t response and less likely to receive an aggressive response than were aggressive initiations. Participants in r/t were more likely to have been together than to have been apart prior to the encounter, but this tendency was strongly mediated by sex. In three out of the four classes, children were more likely to have been together prior to same sex r/t interactions and to have been apart prior to mixed sex r/t interactions. Participants in r/t were not significantly more likely to have been together beforehand than participants in aggressive fighting. Finally, while most bouts of r/t led to the participants remaining together, the proportion that did so was not significantly greater than was the case for bouts of aggressive fighting. Possible reasons why r/t and aggressive fighting did or did not differ in these ways are discussed.

The Relation Between Trust Beliefs and Loneliness During Early Childhood, Middle Childhood, and Adulthood

Four studies examined the relation between trust and loneliness. Studies 1, 2, and 3 showed that trust beliefs negatively predicted changes in loneliness during early childhood (5—7 years), middle childhood (9—11 years), and young adulthood (18—21 years). Structural equation modeling yielded support for the hypothesis that the relation between trust beliefs and loneliness was mediated, in part, by social disengagement, which varied by age and gender. Study 4 showed that when young adults were primed for distrust rather than for trust cognitions, they showed greater withdrawal (loneliness) affect, lower willingness to disclose, and less perceived success in achieving rapport. The findings yielded support for the hypotheses that (a) low trust beliefs promote loneliness from childhood to adulthood and (b) social disengagement and cognitive schema mechanisms account for the relation.

Predicting undergraduates' self-reported engagement in traditional and cyberbullying from attitudes.

Studies indicate that attitudes predict traditional forms of bullying. Fewer studies have tested this for cyberbullying, in which the harassment is delivered via electronic communication technology. The current study represents the first direct comparison of attitudes toward the two forms of bullying among undergraduates (N=405). It also tested the hypothesis that engagement in traditional and cyberbullying could be predicted from attitudes toward bullying behavior, bullies, and victims. Results indicated that participants held least favorable attitudes toward physical bullying/bullies, more accepting attitudes toward verbal bullying/bullies, and attitudes toward forms of cyberbullying/bullies somewhere in between. Significant sex differences were also obtained; women expressed significantly less accepting attitudes toward bullying behavior and perpetrators, and more accepting attitudes toward victims, across all subtypes of bullying. The hypothesis that attitudes predict bullying behavior received some support. Some similarities and differences emerged for cyber and traditional forms. The implications for future research, theory building, and interventions are discussed.

Participation in playground activities at middle school

Summary In Study 1, eight‐ and 11‐year‐old childrens participation in playground activities was examined by means of direct observations. At both ages, the two most common categories of behaviour engaged in were sociable activities and rule games. The older children spent significantly more time in rule games and significantly less time alone than the younger children. Girls spent significantly more time in sociable activities and significantly less time alone than boys. The proportion of time spent in these and other categories of behaviour was not found to differ from the beginning to the end of playtime. A more detailed analysis revealed the proportion of time spent in some more specific games and activities, as well as other age and sex differences. Many activities were found to be typically single sex and/or single age affairs, although others were more often played in mixed sex and/or mixed age groups. Some of the reasons for why this was the case were explored in Study 2, along with the childrens...

Social Representations of Physical, Verbal, and Indirect Aggression in Children: Sex and Age Differences

Previous research has suggested that females hold “expressive” social representations of aggression and males hold “instrumental” representations [e.g., Archer and Parker (1994): Aggressive Behavior 20:101–114; Campbell et al. (1992): Aggressive Behavior 18:95–108]. There is also evidence to suggest that an instrumental representation is associated with higher levels of actual aggression [e.g., Archer and Haigh (1996): British Journal of Social Psychology 35:1–23; Campbell et al. (1993): Aggressive Behavior 19:125–135] and that although males employ more physical aggression, females use more indirect aggression [Lagerspetz and Bjorkqvist (1994): Plenum Press]. In light of these findings, the present study aimed to (1) devise questionnaires measuring social representations of physical, verbal, and indirect aggression, suitable for use with children aged 7 to 11 years; (2) examine sex and age differences in these questionnaires; and (3) compare representations of physical aggression with representations of indirect aggression for both boys and girls. Results showed that compared with girls, boys held more instrumental representations of all three forms of aggression, whereas compared with boys, girls held more expressive representations. Likewise, children aged 10 to 11 years held more instrumental representations of all three forms of aggression compared with children aged 7 to 8 years. There were no differences between representations of physical vs. representations of indirect aggression for girls or for boys. Sex and age differences were discussed in terms of sex roles and a developmental change in children’s views on aggressive retaliation. In addition, previous research suggesting a link between representations and actual aggression was questioned. Aggr. Behav. 26:442–454, 2000.

Longitudinal associations between submissive/nonassertive social behavior and different types of peer victimization.

Previous research, primarily in North America, has found that submissive and nonassertive behaviors are associated with peer victimization during childhood. A limitation of this work has been the failure to examine the relationships between such behaviors and different types of peer victimization. To overcome this weakness, we developed an inventory to assess the bidirectional longitudinal associations between three different types of victimization and submissive/nonassertive social behavior. The inventory was completed by 449 children aged 9 to 11 years at two time points over the course of an academic year. The inventory generated self-report scores and peer nominations. A robust finding was that submissive/nonassertive social behavior predicted an increase in social exclusion only. In examining the other direction of the relationship, we found that only social exclusion predicted changes in submissive/nonassertive social behavior over time. The findings advance our understanding of the social skills deficits that put children at risk for peer victimization, and of the implications of victimization for the development of submissive/nonassertive social skills problems.