Michael J. Crowe

The extraterrestrial life debate, 1750-1900 : the idea of a plurality of worlds from Kant to Lowell

This is the first in-depth study in English of the international debate that developed between 1750 and 1900 concerning the question of the existence of extraterrestrial intelligent life. Taking a history of ideas approach, the author describes the controversies that-arose over this question and reveals the great extent to which this issue influenced astronomical, philosophical, and religious thought. Professor Crowe shows that the majority of the leading astronomers of the last two centuries participated in this debate and he analyzes how their views interacted with new developments such as Newtonian mechanics, stellar astronomy, Darwinian theory, and astrophysics. This fascinating and critical history shows that the longstanding and widespread belief in extraterrestrial life has for centuries acted to alter major areas of our intellectual life.

Ten “Laws” concerning patterns of change in the history of mathematics

Abstract Using the new historiography of science as a touch-stone, the historiography of mathematics is examined. Ten “laws” concerning patterns of conceptual change in mathematics are then suggested.

A History of the Extraterrestrial Life Debate

From antiquity to the present, humans have debated whether intelligent life exists elsewhere in the universe. This presentation will survey this debate, examining the roles played in it by science, religion, philosophy, and other areas of human learning. One thesis that will be developed is that whether or not extraterrestrials exist, ideas about them have strongly influenced Western thought.

The Extraterrestrial Life Debate from Antiquity to 1900

This chapter provides an overview of the Western historical debate regarding extraterrestrial life from antiquity to the beginning of the twentieth century. Though schools of thought in antiquity differed on whether extraterrestrial life existed, by the Middle Ages, the Aristotelian worldview of a unified, finite cosmos without extraterrestrials was most influential, though there were such dissenters as Nicholas of Cusa. That would change as the Copernican revolution progressed. Scholars such as Bruno, Kepler, Galileo, and Descartes would argue for a Copernican system of a moving Earth. Cartesian and Newtonian physics would eventually lead to a view of the universe in which the Earth was one of many planets in one of many solar systems extended in space. As this cosmological model was developing, so too were notions of extraterrestrial life. Popular and scientific writings, such as those by Fontenelle and Huygens, led to a reversal of fortunes for extraterrestrials, who by the end of the century were gaining recognition. From 1700 to 1800, many leading thinkers discussed extraterrestrial intelligent beings. In doing so, they relied heavily on arguments from analogy and such broad principles and ideas as the Copernican Principle, the Principle of Plenitude, and the Great Chain of Being. Physical evidence for the existence of extraterrestrials was minimal, and was always indirect, such as the sighting of polar caps on Mars, suggesting similarities between Earth and other places in the universe. Nonetheless, the eighteenth century saw writers from a wide variety of genres—science, philosophy, theology, literature—speculate widely on extraterrestrials. In the latter half of the century, increasing research in stellar astronomy would be carried out, heavily overlapping with an interest in extraterrestrial life. By the end of the eighteenth century, belief in intelligent beings on solar system planets was nearly universal and certainly more common than it would be by 1900, or even today. Moreover, natural theology led to most religious thinkers being comfortable with extraterrestrials, at least until 1793 when Thomas Paine vigorously argued that although belief in extraterrestrial intelligence was compatible with belief in God, it was irreconcilable with belief in God becoming incarnate and redeeming Earth’s sinful inhabitants. In fact, some scientific analyses, such as Newton’s determination of the comparative masses and densities of planets, as well as the application of the emerging recognition of the inverse square law for light and heat radiation, might well have led scientists to question whether all planets are fully habitable. Criticism would become more prevalent throughout the nineteenth century, and especially after 1860, following such events as the “Moon Hoax” and Whewell’s critique of belief in extraterrestrials. Skepticism about reliance on arguments from analogy and on such broad metaphysical principles as the Principle of Plenitude also led scientists to be cautious about claims for higher forms of life elsewhere in the universe. At the start of the twentieth century, the controversy over the canals of Mars further dampened enthusiasm for extraterrestrials. By 1915 astronomers had largely rejected belief in higher forms of life anywhere in our solar system and were skeptical about the island universe theory.

Duhem and history and philosophy of mathematics

The first part of this paper consists of an exposition of the views expressed by Pierre Duhem in his Aim and Structure of Physical Theory concerning the philosophy and historiography of mathematics. The second part provides a critique of these views, pointing to the conclusion that they are in need of reformulation. In the concluding third part, it is suggested that a number of the most important claims made by Duhem concerning physical theory, e.g., those relating to the ‘Newtonian method’, the limited falsifiability of theories, and the restricted role of logic, can be meaningfully applied to mathematics.

William and John Herschel’s Quest for Extraterrestrial Intelligent Life

The contributions to astronomy made by Sir William Herschel (1738–1822; Fig. 5.1) place him among the leading astronomers of modern times. His son, Sir John Herschel (1792–1871), does not rank far behind. The goals of the present study are to document from their published and unpublished writings the intense interest they shared in the question of the existence of extraterrestrial intelligent life (hereafter ETI). To put it somewhat differently, we shall attempt to show that a quasi-religious, quasi-metaphysical doctrine – belief in a plurality of inhabited worlds – at times motivated their labors, influenced their theories, and in some cases may have had an impact even on their observations. Earlier historians, including this author, have treated aspects of this topic, but it seems timely to draw these researches together into a single study. We shall also suggest that although it is widely assumed that present-day astronomers are more concerned with extraterrestrials than their eighteenth-century predecessors were, the reverse is nearer the truth.

JOHN HERSCHEL: BRITAIN'S FIRST MODERN PHYSICAL SCIENTIST

SUMMARY In this paper I shall present a sketch of the life and contributions to science of Sir John F. W. Herschel (179–1871). One of the theses that I shall develop is that John Herschel can meaningfully be described as Britains first modern physical scientist. In addition to developing this thesis, I shall make some remarks about lesser known aspects of Herschels life.

THE JOHN HERSCHEL CORRESPONDENCE PROJECT

SUMMARY A description is given of the project to produce a calendar of the over fifteen thousand John Herschel letters.

A New Age in Science and Technology

Are we now in, or entering into, a new age? Is this a revolutionary period in the history of man? This paper will consider these questions, especially as they relate to science and technology. Consider the following statements, all of which cite evidence in support of the thesis that a new age is upon us.