Michael J. Gallivan

Organizational adoption and assimilation of complex technological innovations: development and application of a new framework

This paper explores the applicability of traditional innovation adoption and diffusion models to contingent, authority innovation processes occurring within an organizational context (Zaltman, Duncan & Holbeck, 1973); that is, when employees in organizations adopt an innovation that has been chosen by an authority figure. This paper identifies existing gaps in traditional innovation adoption models and concludes that a new framework is required --- one that incorporates the unique processes and factors related to organizational adoption and assimilation of innovations. A new hybrid theoretical framework is developed which combines insights from organizational-level research on technology implementation (Cooper & Zmud, 1990; Orlikowski, 1993) with constructs from traditional innovation adoption models (Rogers, 1983; Prescott & Conger, 1995). The resulting theory is a hybrid process/variance theory, which captures both implementation events and the factors that influence them (Shaw & Jarvenpaa, 1997). Data from a longitudinal case study of a firm that implemented client/server development are used to illustrate the framework and to develop propositions for future research.

Toward a deeper understanding of system usage in organizations: a multilevel perspective

The objective of this paper is to contribute to a deeper understanding of system usage in organizations by examining its multilevel nature. Past research on system usage has suffered from a levels bias, with researchers studying system usage at single levels of analysis only (e.g., the individual, group, or organizational level). Although single-level research can be useful, we suggest that studying organizations one level at a time will ultimately lead to an unnatural, incomplete, and very disjointed view of how information systems are used in practice. To redress this situation, we draw on recent advances in multilevel theory to present system usage as a multilevel construct and provide an illustration for what it takes for researchers to study it as such. The multilevel perspective advanced in this article offers rich opportunities for theoretical and empirical insights and suggests a new foundation for in-depth research on the nature of system usage, its emergence and change, and its antecedents and consequences.

Striking a balance between trust and control in a virtual organization: a content analysis of open source software case studies

Abstract. Many organization theorists have predicted the emergence of the networked or virtual firm as a model for the design of future organizations. Researchers have also emphasized the importance of trust as a necessary condition for ensuring the success of virtual organizations. This paper examines the open source software (OSS) ‘movement’ as an example of a virtual organization and proposes a model that runs contrary to the belief that trust is critical for virtual organizations. Instead, I argue that various control mechanisms can ensure the effective performance of autonomous agents who participate in virtual organizations. Borrowing from the theory of the ‘McDonaldization’ of society, I argue that, given a set of practices to ensure the control, efficiency, predictability and calculability of processes and outcomes in virtual organizations, effective performance may occur in the absence of trust. As support for my argument, I employ content analysis to examine a set of published case studies of OSS projects. My results show that, although that trust is rarely mentioned, ensuring control is an important criterion for effective performance within OSS projects. The case studies feature few references to other dimensions of McDonaldization (efficiency, predictability and calculability), however, and I conclude that the OSS movement relies on many other forms of social control and self‐control, which are often unacknowledged in OSS projects. Through these implicit forms of control, OSS projects are able to secure the cooperation of the autonomous agents that participate in project teams. I conclude by extrapolating from these case studies to other virtual organizations.

The user–developer communication process: a critical case study

Abstract. Although user participation in systems development is widely believed to have positive impacts on user acceptance, it does not guarantee success and there is still much that we do not know about how and why user participation sometimes delivers positive benefits, but not always. Much of the prior research on user participation assumes that user–developer communication will ensure that the resulting system will be designed to meet users’ needs and will be accepted by them. The nature and quality of the communication between users and developers, however, remains an understudied aspect of user participation. In this paper, we focus on the user–developer communication process. We propose a process model that delineates four stages of communication between users and software developers, and we argue that these stages must occur for user participation to lead to effective outcomes. To illustrate our model, we apply it to analyse a ‘critical case study’ of a software project that failed despite high levels of user involvement. We show that when ‘communication lapses’ occurred in several of the user–developer communication stages, developers failed to be informed regarding the underlying reasons that users avoided the system. Based on the insights from this case study, we advise researchers and practitioners how to leverage the potential benefits of user participation, rather than take them for granted.

Trust, control and the role of interorganizational systems in electronic partnerships

Abstract. To survive and thrive in todays competitive marketplace, organizations are increasingly migrating to new organizational structures in which partnerships and interorganizational systems (IOSs) are becoming more important. The success of these partnerships depends on both trust and control – complex constructs that act on and shape each other over time. Many organizations assume that high levels of trust are necessary for net‐enabled electronic partnerships. We examine this assumption from two perspectives: the initial decision to enter into a partnership or alliance, and its ongoing operation. Our findings suggest that researchers have treated trust simplistically, failing to distinguish the need for trust (which is inversely related to the organizations ability to control its partners) and the level of trust (which is an actual quantity that may change during the lifetime of the partnership). In many organizations, there is a gap between these two trust dimensions, which management attempts to close by changing the level of control. In this process, the IOS is key. To understand the relationship of IOS use to trust and control, we applied structured content analysis and analytic induction to 16 published case studies and used the results to create a framework for relating trust and control. At the heart of the framework is the recognition that trust and control are not simple substitutes for each other. Rather, they form a dialectic, where it makes sense to consider each construct only in relationship to the other. Using the framework, we identify areas for follow‐up research and suggestions for practitioners.

Analyzing IT outsourcing relationships as alliances among multiple clients and vendors

As the business environment become more uncertain and competitive, many organizations are seeking ways to gain economic efficiency and share in business and technology risk. Despite wide differences in the reference disciplines applied to outsourcing research, the vast majority of it assumes a one-to-one relationship between the client and the outsourcing vendor. This paper examines the economic, strategic and organizational issues involved in IT outsourcing when more complex arrangements are considered-such as multi-vendor alliances, co-sourcing and complex multi-vendor, multi-client relationships. We identify a taxonomy of four classes of outsourcing relationships (based on how many clients and vendors are involved in the outsourcing relationship), and illustrate each with recent business examples. Grounded in this taxonomy, we develop a theoretical framework that identifies both enabling and constraining forces that may influence client firms in choosing among the four types of outsourcing relationships. This paper provides insights regarding how the variations in the nature of these outsourcing relationships may shape the benefits and risks be achieved from outsourcing, as well as the ongoing complexity of managing outsourcing relationships.

Analyzing IS research productivity: an inclusive approach to global IS scholarship

An increasing number of studies have appeared that evaluate and rank journal quality and the productivity of IS scholars and their institutions. In this paper, we describe the results of one recent study identifying the ‘Top 30’ IS Researchers, revealing many unexamined assumptions about which IS publication outlets should be included in any definition of high-quality, scholarly IS journals. Drawing from the argument that all categories and classification schemes are grounded in politics, we critique the process by which the recent study in question (and several earlier studies) have derived the set of journals from which they count researcher publications. Based on a critical examination of the widespread inclusion of practitioner outlets, and the consistent exclusion of European scholarly IS journals, we develop our own arguments for which journals should be included in such evaluations of researcher productivity. We conduct our own analysis of IS researcher productivity for the period 1999–2003, based on articles published in a geographically balanced set of 12 IS journals, and then we compare our results with those from the recent study in question and their predecessors. Our results feature a more diverse set of scholars – both in terms of location (specifically, the country and continent in which the researchers are employed) and gender. We urge future studies of IS research productivity to follow our practice of including high-quality European journals, while eschewing practitioner-oriented publications (such as Harvard Business Review and Communications of the ACM). We also advocate that such studies count only research contributions (e.g., research articles), and that other genres of non-research articles – such as book reviews, ‘issues and opinions’ pieces and editorial introductions – not be conflated with counts of research contributions.

Value in triangulation: a comparison of two approaches for combining qualitative and quantitative methods

This paper raises and pursues the question of why research utilizing mixed, quantitative and qualitative methods has been so strongly advocated, yet so little achieved. Following an overview of a range of solutions to the call for “ethodological pluralism,” a conceptual framework for understanding the process and outcomes of mixed method research is advanced, and several research studies are used to illustrate the framework. The conceptual framework is based on two dimensions suggested by prior research. Specifically, the framework analyzes various outcomes that emerge from the research — such as different types of contradictions (Robey 1995) and also whether the two methods were employed sequentially or independently. The paper analyzes the relationship between these two dimensions of the framework, offering some possible reasons why mixed-methods studies in which the two methods are employed independently appear to lead to different outcomes.

Toward a framework for classifying and guiding mixed method research in information systems

The field of information systems (IS) has explored research questions in a near-unilateral focus in that most IS research, particularly research published in North American journals, uses a quantitative, positivist approach. To achieve a better understanding of the effect of IS in organizations, researchers should invoke mixed method research in which both quantitative and qualitative methods are used. Rather than simply calling for more mixed method research, we adapt a framework from the education evaluation literature for use within IS. This framework not only classifies existing literature and provides insight into possible mixed method designs, but also contains recommendations for implementing different types of mixed method research. We also analyze this framework in the context of three IS mixed method studies. Challenges to mixed method research and future plans for research are also discussed.

The challenge of knowledge management systems

Knowledge management systems and related initiatives have become a popular focus in many firms, yet many knowledge management systems initiatives fail to achieve their goals. Focuses on systems that are implemented to achieve deliberate performance improvement objectives in organizations, rather than to support discretionary communication. Employs constructs from system dynamics – a discipline that recognizes that the relationships between complex organizing technologies and human behavior are dynamic, evolving, and interconnected. Drawing from recent studies employing system dynamics, proposes a framework to analyze the implementation challenges posed by knowledge management systems adopted as part of a deliberate performance improvement program. Illustrates the framework with a case study of an initiative within a university “help desk” department where conflicting incentives hindered employees’ efforts to leverage the systems. The framework underscores the complex and interdependent effects triggered b...