Michael J. Scheel

An empirically derived description of self-efficacy and empowerment for parents of children identified as psychologically disordered

Abstract Parents of clinic-referred preschool children are particularly vulnerable to less self-efficacious judgments of their ability to effectively parent their child. It is vital that these parents demonstrate empowerment through proactive involvement in treatment. Descriptions of parent self-efficacy and empowerment that could aid counseling agency facilitation of these qualities in parents are lacking. This study pursued an empirically derived description of parent self-efficacy and parent empowerment specific to the context of clinic-referred preschool children. Parent internal perceptions of stress, family functioning, stress due to child condition, and extrafamilial influences were considered in separate predictive models of parent self-efficacy and parent empowerment. Stepwise regression revealed parent stress and family functioning as significant predictors of parent self-efficacy, while a broader range of variables that also included parent employment and education constituted the parent empowe...

The Process of Recommending Homework in Psychotherapy: A Review of Therapist Delivery Methods, Client Acceptability, and Factors That Affect Compliance

Although the link between homework use and positive psychotherapy outcomes has been established, relatively little is known about the therapeutic processes, or factors, that promote homework compliance. Homework compliance may be viewed as an indicator of client commitment and involvement in psychotherapy. This article presents the results of a systematic review of research, including 16 empirical studies, related to the homework recommendation process. Findings relate to the frequency and type of homework that therapists deliver, factors that promote client acceptability of homework recommendations, and factors that affect compliance. On the basis of these findings, the authors propose a theoretically and empirically based, 6-phase conceptual model of the homework recommendation process. They also propose specific strategies for recommending homework to clients and directions for future research. Therapist recommendations to clients to perform out-of-session actions, commonly called homework, are related to positive psychotherapy outcomes. Results of a recent meta-analysis of 27 studies of cognitive and behavioral therapies, representing 375 clients, indicate that this relationship is strong (r = .36; 95% confidence interval [CI] = 0.23–0.48; Kazantzis, Deane, & Ronan, 2000). In this study, homework compliance was also significantly correlated with positive outcomes (r = .22; 95% CI = 0.22–0.22; N = 1,327). Furthermore, studies indicate that the homework–outcome relationship is linear, with clients who do the most homework improving more than clients who do little or no homework (Burns & Auerbach, 1992; Burns & Spangler, 2000; Neimeyer & Feixas, 1990; Persons, Burns, & Perloff, 1988; Zettle & Hayes, 1987). Studies also indicate that cognitive–behavioral therapy (CBT) with homework, compared with CBT without homework, is more effective (Bryant, Simons, & Thase, 1999; Neimeyer & Feixas, 1990). Finally, clients who comply with homework recommendations in cognitive therapy have been shown to benefit more than clients who do not (Bryant et al., 1999). Despite the strong, positive relationship between homework and psychotherapy outcomes, little empirically driven attention has been directed toward studying strategies to use in recommending homework and in gaining compliance from clients to complete homework. Although several reviews related to homework and psychotherapy outcomes have been published (Detweiler & Whisman, 1999; Glaser, Kazantzis, Deane, & Oades, 2000; Kazantzis, 2000; KaPublished in Psychotherapy: Theory, Research, Practice, Training 41:1 (Spring 2004), pp. 38-55; doi 10.1037/00333204.41.1.38 Copyright

Therapist Use of Client Strengths: A Qualitative Study of Positive Processes

Gelso and Woodhouse highlight a lack of empirical efforts to bring a core identity of counseling psychology, the use of client strengths, into therapy. Additionally, the positive psychology movement is devoid of a system of positive therapeutic processes designed to help clients toward optimal human functioning. This investigation sought to explicitly identify positive processes thought to regularly occur in mainstream therapies by interviewing therapists. Interviews produced 266 significant statements leading to five themes: (a) amplification of strengths, (b) contextual considerations, (c) strength-oriented processes, (d) strength-oriented outcomes, and (e) positive meaning-making. Therapists reported using client strengths to broaden client perspectives and create hope and motivation, to create positive meanings through reframing and metaphors, to identify strengths through the interpersonal therapeutic process, to match client contexts through strengths, and to amplify strengths through encouragement and exception finding. Identified themes are recommended as a taxonomy of positive processes for future research.

Whatever Happened to Counseling in Counseling Psychology

A suspected decline in published counseling-related research in The Counseling Psychologist ( TCP) and the Journal of Counseling Psychology (JCP) was investigated through content analyses of the two journals from 1979 to 2008. A marked decline in counseling-related research may signify a shift in emphasis away from counseling as the most fundamental area of counseling psychology. Findings revealed a drop in counseling-related articles from 77.7% to 37.2% of all articles. Both journals independently showed a decline, but it was more pronounced for JCP. Analogue studies decreased most sharply, whereas field studies, supervision, career, and prevention research also declined markedly. Potential explanations are offered, including fewer counseling-related articles submitted, a trend toward more stringent methodological criteria, fewer senior role models, changing editorial preferences, expanded publication outlets, and a shift in emphasis or identity within counseling psychology. Recommendations are proposed for the promotion of more counseling-related research.

An examination of the relation between vocational identity, consistency, and differentiation☆

Abstract This study examines the theorized relation between vocational identity, and the concepts of consistency and differentiation (Holland 1985). A total of 211 male and 353 female academically superior high school juniors participated. Measures of vocational identity were computed using the Vocational Identity scale of the My Vocational Situation. Multiple measures of consistency and differentiation were computed by using the interest scores obtained from the Self-Directed Search. Correlation techniques were used to examine the relation between the three constructs. The results suggested that vocational identity was not related to consistency or differentiation. The findings were discussed in terms of their implications for Hollands theory and for counseling.

The Academic Motivation of At-Risk Students in a Counseling Prevention Program

School dropout is a problem that has distressing personal and societal consequences. Not surprising, students who drop out are typically not academically motivated. This phenomenological study examined the meanings that students construct about academic motivation while participating in a dropout prevention program that primarily uses counseling. Twenty interviews were conducted and transcribed. Six themes emerged from 172 significant statements and corresponding meaning units: self-efficacy, purpose of school, family influences, relationships at school, counselor influence, and school structures and activities. Findings revealed the essence of academic motivation—namely, the importance of relationships in nurturing such motivation. Implications highlight caring relationships as a key factor, fostered through dropout prevention programs that use counseling. Additional implications include the use of career interventions to construct future orientations, the influence of family, and the need for assistance to gain academic self-efficacy.

Quality of Master’s Education A Concern for Counseling Psychology?

The authors offer an analysis of current challenges and opportunities regarding the long-standing issue about the quality and status of master’s education relevant to training and practice in counseling psychology. Highlighted are historical context, controversies regarding licensure and accreditation (e.g., the 2009 Council for Accreditation of Counseling and Related Educational Programs standard that bans counseling psychology faculty as core), and data on counseling master’s programs in departments affiliated with American Psychological Association–accredited doctoral programs in counseling psychology. In an effort to constructively address issues of concern, the authors propose recommendations to differentiate and integrate master’s education with doctoral training by emphasizing the unique contributions of counseling psychology. Their recommendations build on the core values and synergistic potential of counseling psychology foundations both in counseling (e.g., in educational applications and service to multicultural communities) and in professional psychology (e.g., in extending benchmark competencies for training and using scientific research to inform value-added outcomes for effectively serving public mental health needs).

Client Common Factors Represented by Client Motivation and Autonomy

Ryan and colleagues are applauded for elevating client factors in the form of motivation and autonomy to equal status with the alliance as common factors in psychotherapy. Next, client motivation and autonomy are explained to be inextricably linked with one promoting the other. Motivational methods are summarized for the major approaches, making the point that some motivational approaches are more related to the promotion of client autonomy. Change talk is explained as similar to solution talk. Both are social constructivist methods of motivating clients and overcoming impasse in therapy. Matching client beliefs, using client strengths, and providing compelling rationales are underscored as motivational techniques. Similarities between motivation and hope are drawn through Snyder’s hope theory and Frank and Frank’s contextual model of psychotherapy. Finally, motivation and the formation of the alliance are discussed as factors that overlap conceptually and interact as variables in research.

Circular Questioning and Neutrality: An Investigation of the Process Relationship

This study investigated the possibility that interventive circular questions violate the principle of neutrality advanced by the Milan school as essential to the practice of systemic family therapy. A method for categorizing circular questions as interventive or descriptive was developed to explore neutrality violations. Neutrality was operationalized as client perceptions of therapist side-taking and feelings of discomfort. Immediately after family therapy, individual family members viewed videotape replays of moments when circular questions were posed and rated their perceptions of therapist side-taking and feelings of discomfort for each selected moment. Findings indicated a greater tendency for non-neutrality with interventive questions. Neutrality was also represented as multidimensional through the lack of correlation between side-taking and discomfort ratings.

A contextual perspective of clinical judgement in couples and family therapy: is the bridge too far?

This paper reviews the clinical judgement literature and discusses its applicability to the practice of couples and family therapy. Key findings and conceptual foundations are highlighted. A contextual perspective is advocated to guide future investigations and to enhance the generalizability of the literature to the real-life experiences of therapists. Suggestions for theory development and future research are provided.