Michael J. Zakour

Effects of Organizational Type and Localism on Volunteerism and Resource Sharing During Disasters

After a disaster, community consensus is at its highest. This suggests that geographic distance is a barrier to coordination. This study found that geographic distance is negatively related to links among organizations, but most of this relationship is accounted for by organizational variables, including geographic service range, volunteerism, and appreciation shown to volunteers. Organizations with a local orientation have lower levels of volunteerism. Compared to emergency management organization, social service organizations have larger geographic service ranges, a less localistic orientation, and more network links. This study suggests that social service organizations promote resource redistribution and network coordination, whereas emergency management organizations with limited service ranges tend to block resource redistribution and limit volunteer participation.

Effects of Support on Evacuation Preparedness of Persons with Disabilities

Many persons with a disability are not prepared to evacuate in disasters. Subjects (N = 710) from 7 U.S. states responded to a survey measuring level of social support in a crisis, number of organizational memberships, frequency of personal assistance services, and evacuation preparedness. A hierarchical regression, controlling for degree of limitation from disability, shows that informal social support (β = .345), voluntary memberships (β = .106), and personal assistance frequency (β = .113) are statistically significant (p < .01) predictors of preparedness (R = .383, R2 = .148). Interventions that increase the levels of these supports increase disaster preparedness.

Disaster Preparedness among Older Adults: Social Support, Community Participation, and Demographic Characteristics

ABSTRACT This study examined factors associated with disaster preparedness among older adults, with special attention paid to demographic characteristics, social support, and community participation. From a larger study about disaster preparedness of persons with disabilities, a total of 719 adults aged 55 years and older were used for this study. The results of the logistic regressions indicate that individuals who have higher levels of social support and more connections to community organizations are more likely to be prepared for disaster-related emergency situations. In another model, using resource preparedness as the dependent variable, an interaction effect between social support and income was found. Overall, higher income and higher informal support are related to a higher level of resources for disaster preparedness. However, the relationship between income and disaster preparedness is much stronger for those sub-groups receiving more informal support. The findings of this study expand knowledge regarding issues of disaster preparedness among older adults and demonstrates the importance of social resources and networks. This study suggests an intervention model for decision-makers and community leaders in terms of providing information and advice to members of their communities about how to adequately prepare for natural disasters.

Disasters and the Promise of Disaster Vulnerability Theory

In this chapter we introduce disasters and disaster vulnerability theory. The characteristics, distribution, and effects from disasters are discussed to establish a context and to justify our focus on community disaster vulnerability. Key concepts of vulnerability theory are defined, core assumptions are stated and briefly discussed, and boundaries are drawn. The utility of this theory to human service professionals, emergency managers, and social work education, and research is considered. Subsequent chapters break out facets of the theory to elaborate its structure, provide details, and report relevant research findings.

Cross-Sectional Design and Linear Statistics in Vulnerability Research

In this chapter we examine the cross-sectional research designs and linear statistics used in community disaster vulnerability research. The foundation of vulnerability theory is based on cross-sectional data and linear statistics. Cross-sectional designs are by far the most popular type of research done on vulnerability. Similarly, linear statistics account for the vast majority of empirical results reported in the vulnerability literature. The advances in linear statistical modeling over the past several decades have made it possible to squeeze more value out of cross-sectional designs.

Resilience Complements Vulnerability

In this chapter we discuss the perspective on resilience as it relates to vulnerability. Resilience refers to the ability of an individual, group, or community to cope with adversity. Resilience emerges after a disaster or stressful event. Coping with adversity means to recuperate or return relatively quickly to a previous state of normal functioning, or to recover better than expected. Resilience is most widely understood as a process and not as a characteristic of individuals, groups, or communities. References to resilience in the literature are often inspirational but unfounded. We agree with Raphael and Maguire (2009, p. 17) who state that “…theory, conceptualization, and research are required to develop the resilience field and its complex interfaces with disaster …” In order for the process of resilience to become recognized in vulnerability theory and useful in disaster recovery it needs to be more carefully conceptualized and reliably measured (Norris, Stevens, Pfefferbaum, Wyche, & Pfefferbaum, 2008).

Vulnerability Described Through Networks

In this chapter we discuss research findings from social network analysis relevant to vulnerability theory. Although the invention and use of network methods predates the creation of vulnerability theory by 40 years (Moreno, 1934; O’Keefe, Westgate, & Wisner, 1976) the application of network analysis to vulnerability theory has been quite recent and limited. Nevertheless, network methods are well suited to address several of the general assumptions underlying vulnerability theory. We expect vulnerability researchers in the future to make increasing use of network methods.

Lessons learned from New Orleans on vulnerability, resilience, and their integration

Abstract Vulnerability, resilience, and their relationship are at the forefront of new developments in disaster theory and research. The complex relationships between vulnerability and resilience are an area of interest to disaster theorists, researchers, and practitioners. In this chapter, we review the lessons learned about vulnerability and resiliency, and their relationships in the context of Vulnerability-plus (V+) theory. First, we examine evidence that supports V+ theory. We examine the empirical literature on vulnerability and resiliency in the Katrina disaster, with a special emphasis on evidence from the chapters in the present volume. Support for the assumptions of V+ theory are identified and summarized.

Vulnerability-plus theory: The integration of community disaster vulnerability and resiliency theories

Abstract This chapter focuses on the social aspects of both vulnerability and resiliency. Vulnerability is defined as the susceptibility to harm and the process that creates and maintains that susceptibility. In the progression to vulnerability, root social causes interact with dynamic/structural pressures to create unsafe conditions. Unsafe conditions, combined with a hazard, lead to a disaster. Resiliency is defined as the ability of a system to absorb, adapt, and transform in the face of hazards, shocks, and stresses. Both disaster susceptibility and resilience are determined by the balance of environmental liabilities and capabilities. Disaster vulnerability and resilience perspectives are complementary rather than being unrelated or competing approaches. The similarity of the two concepts is used to integrate vulnerability and resilience theory, resulting in vulnerability-plus (V+) theory. This chapter identifies the empirical support for V+ theory and its major assumptions. The applicability of this new theory for disaster management is described (Zakour & Gillespie, 2013).

Faith-based organizations in Katrina: The United Methodist Church

Abstract This chapter examines the role of faith-based organizations in fostering transformative resilience during the Katrina recovery and reconstruction periods. Faith-based organizations are recognized by many Katrina survivors as highly effective in helping people recover and rebuild. Through the provision of volunteers, faith-based organizations were leaders in a disaster-related utopian and revitalization movement after Katrina. The United Methodist Church (UMC) provided thousands of volunteers, many of whom returned multiple times to promote a recovery imbued with spirituality. After the immediate response and recovery periods, the church also enacted outreach services to continue to promote resilience. Through a democratic, flexible, and egalitarian process, the UMC in New Orleans was reborn. A case study of the recovery services of the UMC in New Orleans after Katrina and Rita is presented to illustrate the role of faith-based organizations in fostering church, community, and survivor resilience. Stories of Katrina survivors aided by the UMC on Relief (UMCOR) are recounted.