Michael Kettermann

Evolution of structure and permeability of normal faults with clay smear: Insights from water-saturated sandbox models and numerical simulations

Clay smear is difficult to predict for subsurface flow applications and would benefit from an improved understanding of the processes controlling clay smear. We present water-saturated sandbox experiments with large clay smear surfaces (~500 cm2) that couple cross-fault fluid flow measurements with structural analysis of excavated clay smears. We compare measured flow data to numerical flow simulations to develop a tool to evaluate the evolving fault structure. Results show diagnostic relationships between fault structures and cross-fault flow. In experiments with one or two clay layers and a cumulative thickness of 10 mm at 100 mm displacement, normally consolidated clay in a structural domain of graben faulting initially yields hybrid brittle/ductile failure with early breaching of the clay layer and increased cross-fault flux. This is followed by fault backstepping, formation of clay smears, and reworking of clay fragments within the fault. Early formed holes remain open during the evolution of the faults. Fault zones are segmented by fault lenses, breached relays, and clay smears in which sand and clay mix by deformation. Experiments with two clay layers show that holes rarely form at the same position on the fault plane, producing a layered sand-clay fault rock with greater flow path tortuosity and lower permeability than in one-layer experiments. We compare our results with observations of faults in nature and discuss progress toward models with sufficient detail and understanding to allow prediction of flow across evolving faults, first in laboratory models and then in the subsurface.

Relating Structural Elements to Cross-fault Flow - Implications for Fault Permeability Estimation

The evolution of cross-fault fluid flow in sand-clay sequences, especially the role of structural elements is not well understood. We present observations from analogue experiments using an underwater sandbox setup that allows dynamic cross-fault flux measurements. We combine the results of flux measurements with observations of the evolving fault zone in map view as well as with structural information of the clay smear after completing deformation. Carefully excavating the clay smear allows finding holes in the clay as well as relays, horses and other structures. Clay veneers of ~0.1 mm remain intact during the excavation process. We present results of eight experiments with the same total clay volume, of which three experiments had two clay layers with each half the thickness of the other experiments. The results show a more linear evolution of flux with smaller total flux. In experiments with a single clay layer we interpret the initial deformation to be hybrid failure with sudden increase of flux while at later stages fault segmentation and shearing of clay fragments causes less distinct increases of flux. Finally, we observe a process potentially capable of resealing discontinuous clay smears.