Michael M. Douglas

River and wetland food webs in Australia’s wet–dry tropics: general principles and implications for management

The tropical rivers of northern Australia have received international and national recognition for their high ecological and cultural values. Unlike many tropical systems elsewhere in the world and their temperate Australian counterparts, they have largely unmodified flow regimes and are comparatively free from the impacts associated with intensive land use. However, there is growing demand for agricultural development and existing pressures, such as invasive plants and feral animals, threaten their ecological integrity. Using the international literature to provide a conceptual framework and drawing on limited published and unpublished data on rivers in northern Australia, we have derived five general principles about food webs and related ecosystem processes that both characterise tropical rivers of northern Australia and have important implications for their management. These are: (1) the seasonal hydrology is a strong driver of ecosystem processes and food-web structure; (2) hydrological connectivity is largely intact and underpins important terrestrial–aquatic food-web subsidies; (3) river and wetland food webs are strongly dependent on algal production; (4) a few common macroconsumer species have a strong influence on benthic food webs; and (5) omnivory is widespread and food chains are short. The implications of these ecosystem attributes for the management and protection of tropical rivers and wetlands of northern Australian are discussed in relation to known threats. These principles provide a framework for the formation of testable hypotheses in future research programmes.

Riparian Ecosystems in the 21st Century: Hotspots for Climate Change Adaptation?

Riparian ecosystems in the 21st century are likely to play a critical role in determining the vulnerability of natural and human systems to climate change, and in influencing the capacity of these systems to adapt. Some authors have suggested that riparian ecosystems are particularly vulnerable to climate change impacts due to their high levels of exposure and sensitivity to climatic stimuli, and their history of degradation. Others have highlighted the probable resilience of riparian ecosystems to climate change as a result of their evolution under high levels of climatic and environmental variability. We synthesize current knowledge of the vulnerability of riparian ecosystems to climate change by assessing the potential exposure, sensitivity, and adaptive capacity of their key components and processes, as well as ecosystem functions, goods and services, to projected global climatic changes. We review key pathways for ecological and human adaptation for the maintenance, restoration and enhancement of riparian ecosystem functions, goods and services and present emerging principles for planned adaptation. Our synthesis suggests that, in the absence of adaptation, riparian ecosystems are likely to be highly vulnerable to climate change impacts. However, given the critical role of riparian ecosystem functions in landscapes, as well as the strong links between riparian ecosystems and human well-being, considerable means, motives and opportunities for strategically planned adaptation to climate change also exist. The need for planned adaptation of and for riparian ecosystems is likely to be strengthened as the importance of many riparian ecosystem functions, goods and services will grow under a changing climate. Consequently, riparian ecosystems are likely to become adaptation ‘hotspots’ as the century unfolds.

The effect of three fire regimes on stream water quality, water yield and export coefficients in a tropical savanna (northern Australia)

The effects of three fire regimes—(1) burning early in the dry season (June), (2) burning late in the dry season (September) and (3) not burning (protected from wildfires)—on the water quality, water yield and export coefficients of three intermittent streams, which flow between December and June, have been examined in a tropical savanna in northern Australia. The study was conducted over a three year period in Kakadu National Park, and employed a comparative catchment approach though without any pre-treatment data. The canopy cover, density of riparian vegetation, litter- and ground-cover of the catchment burnt early in the dry season (catchment E, stream E) and the unburnt catchment (catchment U, stream U) were similar. Fires lit late in the dry season (catchment L, stream L) however resulted in tree mortalities, and a lower canopy cover (50% less), riparian tree density (80% less) and litter cover, and increased amounts of bare ground; thereby increasing catchment Ls susceptibility to erosion. This resulted in episodic runoff events from catchment L in November and December, before continuous wet season flow. These events, absent in catchments E and U, featured high concentrations of total suspended sediment (TSS), volatile suspended sediment (VSS), N, P, Fe and Mn up to 10 times those measured later in the wet season. During continuous wet season flow between December and June, baseflow water quality of the three streams were similar. Storm runoff concentrations for N and P were also similar, however stream L storm runoff concentrations of TSS, VSS, Fe and Mn were 2–5 times higher than those measured in streams E and U. Despite this, only the export coefficients for TSS from catchment L (average 61 kg ha−1) were significantly higher (average 2.4 times) than catchment E and U coefficients. This was attributed to the overwhelming influence of stream volume, relative to concentration, in determining stream load and hence catchment export coefficients (load/catchment area). The apparently negligible impact of the fire regimes on VSS, N, P, Fe and Mn export coefficients, and also the overall low sediment export coefficients for the three catchments which were up to 100 times less than that reported for other tropical environments, were ascribed to the low catchment slopes (average 0.5%), low soil fertility, maintenance of a protective surface gravel lag, the negligible impact of the fire regimes on water yield, and the sometimes lengthy (maximum 6 months) period between burning and runoff.

RELATIONSHIPS OF STREAM INVERTEBRATE COMMUNITIES TO DEFORESTATION IN EASTERN MADAGASCAR

Madagascar has been recently identified as a global hotspot for freshwater biodiversity. Loss of most of its eastern rain forest, combined with a high incidence of micro-endemism and specialization to forest stream habitats, has likely led to extinction of many of the islands stream insect species. We compared habitat and macroinvertebrate community structure in three streams draining protected rain forest within Ranomafana National Park in eastern Madagascar and three agriculture streams draining the parks largely deforested peripheral zone. Multivariate analyses showed that macroinvertebrate communities differed between stream types. Forest streams were characterized by species-rich, diverse communities composed primarily of collector–gatherers and collector–filterers belonging to the orders Trichoptera, Ephemeroptera, Plecoptera, and Diptera. In contrast, relatively depauperate agriculture stream communities were dominated by generalist collector–gatherer taxa mostly belonging to the order Ephemeropt...

Predicting Novel Riparian Ecosystems in a Changing Climate

Rapid changes in global climate are likely to alter species assemblages and environmental characteristics resulting in novel ecosystems. The ability to predict characteristics of future ecosystems is crucial for environmental planning and the development of effective climate change adaptation strategies. This paper presents an approach for envisioning novel ecosystems in future climates. Focusing on riparian ecosystems, we use qualitative process models to predict likely abiotic and biotic changes in four case study systems: tropical coastal floodplains, temperate streams, high mountain streams and urban riparian zones. We concentrate on functional groups rather than individual species and consider dispersal constraints and the capacity for genetic adaptation. Our scenarios suggest that climatic changes will reduce indigenous diversity, facilitate non-indigenous invasion (especially C4 graminoids), increase fragmentation and result in simplified and less distinctive riparian ecosystems. Compared to models based on biota-environment correlations, process models built on mechanistic understanding (like Bayesian belief networks) are more likely to remain valid under novel climatic conditions. We posit that predictions based on species’ functional traits will facilitate regional comparisons and can highlight effects of climate change on ecosystem structure and function. Ecosystems that have experienced similar modification to that expected under climate change (for example, altered flow regimes of regulated rivers) can be used to help inform and evaluate predictions. By manipulating attributes of these system models (for example, magnitude of climatic changes or adaptation strategies used), implications of various scenarios can be assessed and optimal management strategies identified.

Consumer - resource coupling in wet-dry tropical rivers

1. Despite implications for top-down and bottom-up control and the stability of food webs, understanding the links between consumers and their diets remains difficult, particularly in remote tropical locations where food resources are usually abundant and variable and seasonal hydrology produces alternating patterns of connectivity and isolation. 2. We used a large scale survey of freshwater biota from 67 sites in three catchments (Daly River, Northern Territory; Fitzroy River, Western Australia; and the Mitchell River, Queensland) in Australias wet-dry tropics and analysed stable isotopes of carbon (δ(13) C) to search for broad patterns in resource use by consumers in conjunction with known and measured indices of connectivity, the duration of floodplain inundation, and dietary choices (i.e. stomach contents of fish). 3. Regression analysis of biofilm δ(13) C against consumer δ(13) C, as an indicator of reliance on local food sources (periphyton and detritus), varied depending on taxa and catchment. 4. The carbon isotope ratios of benthic invertebrates were tightly coupled to those of biofilm in all three catchments, suggesting assimilation of local resources by these largely nonmobile taxa. 5. Stable C isotope ratios of fish, however, were less well-linked to those of biofilm and varied by catchment according to hydrological connectivity; the perennially flowing Daly River with a long duration of floodplain inundation showed the least degree of coupling, the seasonally flowing Fitzroy River with an extremely short flood period showed the strongest coupling, and the Mitchell River was intermediate in connectivity, flood duration and consumer-resource coupling. 6. These findings highlight the high mobility of the fish community in these rivers, and how hydrological connectivity between habitats drives patterns of consumer-resource coupling.

Temporal and spatial patterns in stream physicochemistry and insect assemblages in tropical lowland streams

Abstract Stream physicochemistry and insect assemblages were studied in lowland tropical streams in Costa Rica to determine physicochemical variables explaining temporal and spatial variations in insect density and biomass. Streams drained a tropical wet forest landscape and had similar geomorphology, but differed in their water chemistry because of differential inputs of solute-rich (i.e., P, Cl–, and Mg) geothermally modified groundwater. We hypothesized that, within a stream, physical factors, such as discharge, would result in temporal variation in insect assemblages, whereas interstream differences in solute composition would result in differences in insect assemblages among streams. Insect density, biomass, richness, and stream physicochemistry were measured monthly for 1 y in 6 streams. Insect samples were collected with a core sampler in runs where leaf litter overlying fine sediments was the main substrate. Streams with high inputs of geothermally modified groundwater had high conductivity and high concentrations of soluble reactive P (SRP). Annual temporal patterns in stream physicochemistry were related either to rainfall, with subsequent changes in discharge, or to the % geothermally modified groundwater entering streams. Streamwater pH decreased throughout the year, and unbuffered, nongeothermally modified streams changed from near neutral (pH >6) to near acidic (pH <4.5). In all streams, insect density and biomass were highest during the dry season and lowest during the wet season. Insect density and biomass were related positively to pH and to the number of days since the last storm. Insect taxonomic composition was similar among streams. Moreover, interstream variation in insect assemblages was small, and insect density and biomass were not related to any of the measured physicochemical variables, including SRP, which ranged from <5 to 267 μg/L. Overall, the physicochemical characteristics of the study streams were related mainly to geothermally modified groundwater inputs and seasonal patterns in rainfall. Streams with geothermally modified groundwater inputs were better buffered against pH changes than the other streams. Insect assemblages reflected fluctuations in stream physicochemistry during the year and were associated with 2 main factors: floods and pH. Physicochemical characteristics were very different among streams, but insect assemblages were not related to them. We hypothesize that the heterogeneous nature of benthic substrata in the streams resulted in high variation in density and biomass of insects, potentially obscuring differences in insect assemblages among streams.

Productivity, Disturbance and Ecosystem Size Have No Influence on Food Chain Length in Seasonally Connected Rivers

The food web is one of the oldest and most central organising concepts in ecology and for decades, food chain length has been hypothesised to be controlled by productivity, disturbance, and/or ecosystem size; each of which may be mediated by the functional trophic role of the top predator. We characterised aquatic food webs using carbon and nitrogen stable isotopes from 66 river and floodplain sites across the wet-dry tropics of northern Australia to determine the relative importance of productivity (indicated by nutrient concentrations), disturbance (indicated by hydrological isolation) and ecosystem size, and how they may be affected by food web architecture. We show that variation in food chain length was unrelated to these classic environmental determinants, and unrelated to the trophic role of the top predator. This finding is a striking exception to the literature and is the first published example of food chain length being unaffected by any of these determinants. We suggest the distinctive seasonal hydrology of northern Australia allows the movement of fish predators, linking isolated food webs and potentially creating a regional food web that overrides local effects of productivity, disturbance and ecosystem size. This finding supports ecological theory suggesting that mobile consumers promote more stable food webs. It also illustrates how food webs, and energy transfer, may function in the absence of the human modifications to landscape hydrological connectivity that are ubiquitous in more populated regions.

Adding fuel to the fire: the impacts of non-native grass invasion on fire management at a regional scale

Background Widespread invasion by non-native plants has resulted in substantial change in fire-fuel characteristics and fire-behaviour in many of the worlds ecosystems, with a subsequent increase in the risk of fire damage to human life, property and the environment. Models used by fire management agencies to assess fire risk are dependent on accurate assessments of fuel characteristics but there is little evidence that they have been modified to reflect landscape-scale invasions. There is also a paucity of information documenting other changes in fire management activities that have occurred to mitigate changed fire regimes. This represents an important limitation in information for both fire and weed risk management. Methodology/Principal Findings We undertook an aerial survey to estimate changes to landscape fuel loads in northern Australia resulting from invasion by Andropogon gayanus (gamba grass). Fuel load within the most densely invaded area had increased from 6 to 10 t ha−1 in the past two decades. Assessment of the effect of calculating the Grassland Fire Danger Index (GFDI) for the 2008 and 2009 fire seasons demonstrated that an increase from 6 to 10 t ha−1 resulted in an increase from five to 38 days with fire risk in the ‘severe’ category in 2008 and from 11 to 67 days in 2009. The season of severe fire weather increased by six weeks. Our assessment of the effect of increased fuel load on fire management practices showed that fire management costs in the region have increased markedly (∼9 times) in the past decade due primarily to A. gayanus invasion. Conclusions/Significance This study demonstrated the high economic cost of mitigating fire impacts of an invasive grass. This study demonstrates the need to quantify direct and indirect invasion costs to assess the risk of further invasion and to appropriately fund fire and weed management strategies.

Measuring benefits of protected area management: Trends across realms and research gaps for freshwater systems

Protected areas remain a cornerstone for global conservation. However, their effectiveness at halting biodiversity decline is not fully understood. Studies of protected area benefits have largely focused on measuring their impact on halting deforestation and have neglected to measure the impacts of protected areas on other threats. Evaluations that measure the impact of protected area management require more complex evaluation designs and datasets. This is the case across realms (terrestrial, freshwater, marine), but measuring the impact of protected area management in freshwater systems may be even more difficult owing to the high level of connectivity and potential for threat propagation within systems (e.g. downstream flow of pollution). We review the potential barriers to conducting impact evaluation for protected area management in freshwater systems. We contrast the barriers identified for freshwater systems to terrestrial systems and discuss potential measurable outcomes and confounders associated with protected area management across the two realms. We identify key research gaps in conducting impact evaluation in freshwater systems that relate to three of their major characteristics: variability, connectivity and time lags in outcomes. Lastly, we use Kakadu National Park world heritage area, the largest national park in Australia, as a case study to illustrate the challenges of measuring impacts of protected area management programmes for environmental outcomes in freshwater systems.