Michael P. Weinstein

The Identification, Conservation, and Management of Estuarine and Marine Nurseries for Fish and Invertebrates

Michael W. Beck, Kenneth L. Heck, Jr., Kenneth W. Able, Daniel L. Childers, David B. Eggleston, Bronwyn M. Gillanders, Benjamin Halpern, Cynthia G. Hays, Kaho Hoshino, Thomas J. Minello, Robert J. Orth, Peter F. Sheridan and Michael P. Weinstein

Concepts and controversies in tidal marsh ecology

Foreword. Dedication. Preface. Retrospective on the Salt Marsh Paradigm. Tidal marshes as outwelling/pulsing systems E.P. Odum. Salt marsh values: etrospection from the end of the century J.M. Teal, B.L. Howes. Sources and Patterns of Production. Role of salt marshes as part of coastal landscapes I. Valiela, et al. Spatial variation in process and pattern in salt marsh plant communities in eastern North America M.D. Bertness, S.C. Pennings. Eco-physiological controls on the productivity of Spartina alterniflore I.A. Menselssohn, J.T. Morris. Community structure and functional dynamics of benthic microalgae in salt marshes M.J. Sullivan, C.A. Currin. Structure and productivity of microtidal Mediterranean coastal marshes C. Ibanez, et al. Development and structure of salt marshes: community patterns in time and space A.J. Davy. Fate of Production Within Marsh Food Webs. Microbial secondary production from salt marsh-grass shoots, and its known and potential fates S.Y. Newell, D. Porter. Trophic complexity between producers and invertebrate consumers in salt marshes D.A. Kreeger, R.I.E. Newell. Trophic linkages in marshes: ontogenetic changes in diet for young-of-the-year mummichog, Fundulus heteroclitus K.J. Smith, et al. Habitat Value: Food and/or Refuge. Factors influencing habitat selection in fishes with a review of marsh ecosystems J.K. Craig, L.B. Crowder. Salt marsh ecoscapes and production transfers by estuarine nekton in the southeastern U.S. R.T. Kneib. Salt marsh linkages to productivity of penaeid shrimps and blue crabs in the northern Gulf of Mexico R.J. Zimmerman, et al. Ecophysiological determinants ofsecondary production in salt marshes: a simulation study J.M. Miller, et al. Salt marsh ecosystem support of marine transient species L.A. Deegan, et al. Biogeochemical Processes. Benthic-pelagic coupling in marsh-estuarine ecosystems R.F. Dame, et al. Twenty more years of marsh and estuarine flux studies: revisiting Nixon (1980) D.L. Childers, et al. The role of oligohaline marshes in estuarine nutrient cycling J.Z. Merrill, J.C. Cornwell. Molecular tools for studying biogeochemical cycling in salt marshes L. Kerkhof, D.J. Scala. Nitrogen and vegetation dyamics in European salt marshes J. Rozema, et al. Modeling Nutrient and Energy Flux. A stable isotope model approach to estimating the contribution of organic matter from marshes to estuaries P.M. Eldrige, L.A. Cifuentes. Types of salt marsh edge and export of trophic energy from marshes to deeper habitats G. Cichetti, R.J. Diaz. Silicon is the link between tidal marshes and estuarine fisheries: a new paradigm C.T. Hackney, et al. Tidal Marsh Restoration: Fact or Fiction? Self-design applied to coastal restoration W.J. Mitsch. Functional equivalency of restored and natural salt marshes J.B. Zedler, R. Lindig-Cisneros. Organic and inorganic contributions to vertical accretion in salt marsh sediments R.E. Turner, et al. Landscape structure and scale constraints on restoring estuarine wetlands for Pacific coast juvenile fishes C.A. Simenstad, et al. Ecological Engineering of Restored Marshes. The role of pulsing events in the functioning of coastal barriers and wetlands: implications for human impact, management and the response to sea level rise J.W. Day, et al. Influences of vegetation and abiotic environmental f

Ichthyofauna of seagrass meadows along the Caribbean coast of Panamá and in the Gulf of Mexico: Composition, structure and community ecology

Collections of fishes from seagrass meadows along the coast of the Republic of Panamá and the Canal Zone during 1974–1975 revealed that juveniles of reefassociated predators are common in this habitat. There are also important diurnal changes in species composition: members of the families Pomadasyidae, Lutjanidae, Sciaenidae, Apogonidae and Muraenidae were noticeably more abundant in the seagrass meadows at night. Although there were significant differences in species composition and abundance among sampling sites, seasonal differences within sites appeared to be insignificant. The ichthyofauna of the Panamanian seagrass beds is significantly richer than that of similar habitats which have been studied in the Gulf of Mexico. This difference in species richness appears to be due in part to the influence of nearby coral reefs, which add an additional structural dimension to the habitat.

Metal contamination in sediments of the western Bohai Bay and adjacent estuaries, China.

Twelve sediment cores were collected in July 2007 in open waters of western Bohai Bay, the Port of Tianjin, and the adjacent estuaries of the Haihe and Yongding Rivers. While overall concentrations of trace metals at incremental depths in these cores met the Marine Sediment Quality (GB18668-2002) criteria of China, the magnitude of both metal enrichment factors (EF) and geoaccumulation indices (I(geo)) suggested that pollution with Ag, Cd, Cr, Cu and Zn was occurring in the estuaries and Port. Risk analysis also suggested that Ag and Ni concentrations were sufficiently elevated as to cause adverse biological effects in the study area. Although metal concentrations in western Bohai Bay were of less concern, a positive relationship between EF values and excess (210)Pb activity for several metals suggested that their concentrations were increasing over time.

Issues in sediment toxicity and ecological risk assessment

This paper is based on a facilitated Workshop and Roundtable Discussion of key issues in sediment toxicology and ecological risk assessment (ERA) as applied to sediments that was held at the Conference on Dredged Material Management: Options and Environmental Considerations. The issues addressed included how toxicity is defined and perceived, how it is measured, and how it should be used within the context of ERA to support management decisions. The following conclusions were reached regarding scientific considerations of these issues. Toxicity is a measure of hazard and not a risk per se. Thus, toxicity testing is a means but not the end to understand risks of sediments. Toxicity testing cannot presently be replaced by chemical analyses to define hazard. Toxicity test organisms need to be appropriate to the problem being addressed, and the results put into context relative to both reference and baseline comparisons to understand hazard. Use of toxicity tests in sediment ERAs requires appropriate endpoints and risk hypotheses, considering ecological not just statistical significance, and recognizing that hazard does not equate to risk. Toxicity should be linked to population and community response to support decision-making, assessing possible genotypic adaptations that can influence risk estimates, and addressing uncertainty. Additionally, several key scientific issues were identified to improve future sediment ERAs, including the need to improve basic understanding of ecological mechanisms and processes, recognition of variability in the assessment process, and an improved focus and ability to assess risks to populations and communities.

Does the common reed,Phragmites australis, affect essential fish habitat?

Since the early 1900sPhragmites australis has been replacing other vegetation in Atlantic and gulf coast marshes at a rate of about 1% to 6% of the marsh surface per year. Vast areas of coastal marsh are now characterized by dense monotypic stands of this species. By virtue of its ability to build up the marsh surface,P. australis affects the landscape, hydrology, and hydroperiod of the marsh as well as drainage density, and other geomorphic features. Smoothed microtopography results in more difficult access to the marsh by nekton, and possibly reduced exchange of organic materials between the marsh and adjacent estuary. The pattern of replacement byP. australis results in fragmentation of existing stands ofSpartina alterniflora and other extant macrophytes, thereby altering landscape ecology and the ability of the marsh to support biodiversity and the production of marsh fauna.

Success criteria and adaptive management for a large-scale wetland restoration project

We are using a 20+ year photographic history of relatively undisturbed and formerly diked sites to predict the restoration trajectories and equilibrium size of a 4,050 ha salt marsh on Delaware Bay, New Jersey (USA). The project was initiated to offset the loss of finfishes from once-through cooling at a local power plant. We used a simple food chain model to estimate the required restoration size. This model assumed that annual macrophyte detritus production and benthic algal production resulted in production of finfishes, including certain species of local interest. Because the marsh surface and intertidal drainage system are used by many finfishes and are the focal points for exchange of detrital materials, the restoration planning focused on both vegetational and hydrogeomorphological parameters. Recolonization bySpartina spp. and other desirable taxa will be promoted by returning a natural hydroperiod and drainage configuration to two types of degraded salt marsh: diked salt hay (Spartina patens) farms and brackish marsh dominated byPhragmites australis. The criteria for success of the project address two questions: What is the “bound of expectation” for restoration success, and how long will it take to get there? Measurements to be made are macrophyte production, vegetation composition, benthic algal production, and drainage features including stream order, drainage density, channel length, bifurcation ratios and sinuosity. A method for combining these individual parameters into a single success index is also presented. Finally, we developed adaptive management thresholds and corrective measures to guide the restoration process.

Determination of Food Web Support and Trophic Position of the Mummichog, Fundulus heteroclitus, in New Jersey Smooth Cordgrass (Spartina alterniflora ), Common Reed (Phragmites australis), and Restored Salt Marshes

The invasion ofPhragmites australis into tidal marshes formerly dominated bySpartina alterniflora has resulted in considerable interest in the consequences of this invasion for the ecological functions of marsh habitat. We examined the provision of trophic support for a resident marsh fish,Fundulus heteroclitus, in marshes dominated byP. australis, byS. alterniflora, and in restored marshes, using multiple stable isotope analysis. We first evaluated our ability to distinguish among potential primary producers using the multiple stable isotope approach. Within a tidal creek system we found significant marsh and elevation effects on microalgal isotope values, and sufficient variability and overlap in primary producer isotope values to create some difficulty in identifying unique end members. The food webs supportingF. heteroclitus production were examined using dual isotope plots. At both sites, the δ13C values ofF. heteroclitus were clustered over values for benthic microalgae (BMI) and approximately midway between δ13C values ofSpartina andPhragmites. Based on comparisons of fish and primary producer δ13C, δ15N, and δ34S values, and consideration ofF. heteroclitus feeding habits, we conclude that BMI were a significant component of the food web supportingF. heteroclitus in these brackish marshes, especially recently-hatched fish occupying pools on the marsh surface. A 2‰ difference in δ13C betweenFundulus occupying nearly adjacentSpartina andPhragmites marshes may be indicative of relatively less reliance on BMI and greater reliance onPhragmites production inPhragmites-dominated marshes, a conclusion consistent with the reduced BMI biomass found inPhragmites marshes. The mean δ13C value ofF. heteroclitus from restored marshes was intermediate between values of fish from naturally occurringSpartina marshes and areas invaded byPhragmites. We also examined the isotopic evidence for ontogenetic changes in the trophic position of larval and juvenileF. heteroclitus. We found significant positive relationships betweenF. heteroclitus δ15N values and total length, reflective of an increase in trophic position as fish grow.F. heteroclitus δ15N values indicate that these fish are feeding approximately two trophic levels above primary producers.

Managing coastal resources in the 21st century

Coastal ecosystems are increasingly dominated by humans. Consequently, the human dimensions of sustainability science have become an integral part of emerging coastal governance and management practices. But if we are to avoid the harsh lessons of land management, coastal decision makers must recognize that humans are one of the more coastally dependent species in the biosphere. Management responses must therefore confront both the temporal urgency and the very real compromises and sacrifices that will be necessary to achieve a sustainable coastal ecosystem, one that is economically feasible, socially just, and ecologically sound.

Restoration principles emerging from one of the world's largest tidal marsh restoration projects

One of the worlds largest tidal wetland restorationprojects was conceived to offset the loss of nekton toonce-through cooling at a power plant on Delaware Bay,USA. An aggregated food chain model was employed toestimate the area of tidal salt marsh required toreplace these losses. The 5040 ha was comprised of twodegraded marsh types – Phragmites- dominatedmarshes and diked salt hay farms – at elevenlocations in oligo-mesohaline and polyhaline reachesof the estuary. At a series of ‘summits’ convened withnoted experts in the field, it was decided to apply anecological engineering approach (i.e., ‘self design’,and minimal intrusion) in a landscape ecologyframework to the restoration designs while at the sametime monitoring long-term success of the project inthe context of a ‘bound of expectation’. The latterencompassed a range of reference marsh planforms andacceptable end-points established interactively withtwo advisory committees, numerous resource agencies,the permitting agency and multiple-stakeholder groups.In addition to the technical recommendations providedby the projects advisors, public health and safety,property protection and public access to the restoredsites were a constant part of the dialogue between theutility, its consulting scientists and theresource/permitting agencies. Adaptive management wasused to maintain the restoration trajectories, ensurethat success criteria were met in a timely fashion,and to protect the public against potential effects ofsalt intrusion into wells and septic systems, andagainst upland flooding. Herbicide spray, followed byprescribed burns and altered microtopography were usedat Phragmites-dominated sites, and excavation ofhigher order channels and dike breaching were themethods used to initiate the restorations at the dikedsalt hay farms. Monitoring consisted of evaluating therate of re-vegetation and redevelopment of naturaldrainage networks, nekton response to therestorations, and focused research on nutrient flux,nekton movements, condition factors, trophic linkages,and other specific topics. Because of its size anduniqueness, the Estuary Enhancement Program as thisproject is known, has become an important case studyfor scientists engaged in restoration ecology and theapplication of ecological engineering principles. Thehistory of this project, and ultimately theRestoration Principles that emerged from it, are thesubjects of this paper. By documenting the pathways tosuccess, it is hoped that other restoration ecologistsand practitioners will benefit from the experiences wehave gained.