Michael Pfau

Efficacy of inoculation strategies in promoting resistance to political attack messages: Application to direct mail

This investigation examined the potential for the direct mail communication channel to combat the persuasiveness of political attack messages. Inoculation, inoculation‐plus‐reinforcement, and refutation messages were administered to potential voters in a midwestern metropolitan area during the 1988 presidential campaign. The results support the prediction that the use of inoculation via direct mail communication confers resistance to the influence of political attack messages. In addition, the pattern of results of this study indicates that inoculation is more effective than the refutation approach in deflecting the persuasiveness of attack messages.

Embedding Journalists in Military Combat Units: Impact on Newspaper Story Frames and Tone

This investigation probed whether embedded journalist coverage of the first days of the 2003 U.S. invasion of Iraq produced print news coverage that was either more decontextualized inform or more favorable in tone. Embedded news coverage of the first days of Operation “Iraqi Freedom” was compared to nonembedded, so-called “unilateral” coverage; and print coverage of “Iraqi Freedom” was compared with the first days of U.S. ground operations in Operations “Enduring Freedom” and “Desert Storm.” The results indicated that embedded journalists in Operation “Iraqi Freedom” produced news stories that featured more episodic frames, compared to both nonembedded reporters in “Iraqi Freedom” and overall coverage of Operation “Enduring Freedom.” The results also revealed that, compared to nonembedded reporting, embedded print coverage of “Iraqi Freedom” was more favorable in overall tone toward the military and in depiction of individual troops, but this bias did not produce more positive overall coverage compared to recent conflicts.

The influence of television viewing on public perceptions of physicians

This investigation examines the way prime‐time network television programming depicts physicians and the medical profession, and the influence of these images on public perceptions. The results indicate that network prime‐time television programming portrays doctors, and people who watch more prime‐time network programs featuring physicians perceive them, as more likely to be female and young, and as more imbued with interpersonal communication style, physical attractiveness, and power, but less imbued with the trait of character. The prospect that television depictions of physicians may undermine public confidence is explored.

Use of inoculation to promote resistance to smoking initiation among adolescents

This investigation examined the effectiveness of inoculation to promote resistance to smoking initiation among young adolescents. Inoculation and reinforcement videos were administered to 1,047 adolescents in a midwestern city. The overall effectiveness of inoculation was assessed in February, nearly 19 weeks following the administration of the inoculation pretreatments and 10 weeks after administration of reinforcement materials, and again during May, approximately 33 weeks following the administration of the inoculation pretreatments and 25 weeks after administration of the reinforcement materials. The pattern of results revealed that inoculation promotes resistance to smoking onset, but only among adolescents of low self‐esteem, precisely those most at risk to smoking initiation in the first place. Among this group, inoculation contributed to a greater chance of overtly resisting smoking, less positive attitudes toward smoking, and subsequently to less likelihood of smoking.

The Potential of Inoculation in Promoting Resistance to the Effectiveness of Comparative Advertising Messages.

The use of comparative messages in commercial advertising has grown in recent years. This investigation posits a strategy of resistance to the influence of comparative messages, examining the potential of the inoculation message strategy to deflect the persuasiveness of comparatives. The results indicated a modest potential for the inoculation approach. Although the results confirmed that inoculation pretreatments confer resistance to the influence of comparative messages, particularly on behalf of high‐involving products, effect sizes were small. Possible limitations of the inoculation construct in its application to commercial advertising are explored.

Use of inoculation to foster resistance to credit card marketing targeting college students

Student credit card debt is a growing problem. This study explores the effectiveness of the inoculation strategy to foster resistance to credit card marketing targeting college students. In order to explore further the medical analogy on which the inoculation strategy is based, this study was the first systematically to alter the argument strength of both the counterarguments and refutations in the inoculation pretreatment message to determine whether argument strengths impact effectiveness of inoculation treatments. In addition, this investigation explored whether inoculation spreads from person to person via social channels, similar to the marketing concept of viral marketing. Results indicated that conventional inoculation treatment messages successfully inoculated college students against credit card advertisements, manifested in attitude valence and behavioral intentions, and that matching argument strength is the most effective inoculation strategy.

Role and Influence of Communication Modality in the Process of Resistance to Persuasion

This investigation examined the role and influence of print and video communication modalities in inoculation. Inoculation is assumed to be an active cognitive process, and past research has assumed that inoculation treatments function in much the same way in fostering resistance to influence, irrespective of the medium employed to deliver them. The pattern of results indicates that print and video forms do not differ appreciably in their capacity to confer resistance, but they vary considerably in terms of how they promote resistance. Compared to controls, both inoculation approaches effectively generated threat but, contrary to what was predicted, only video elicited significant counterarguing output. In addition, the results confirmed that video treatments employ an alternative mechanism in conferring resistance, one that is based more on source considerations. Video treatments immediately generated positive relational perceptions about the source of the treatments, and they immediately bolstered attitudes. Positive relational perceptions of the source of inoculation treatments were subsequently associated with more negative perceptions of the source of counterattitudinal attacks, and to resistance to the attacks. By contrast, print treatments worked through more cognitive means, eventually inducing resistance, but only after participant exposure to counterattitudinal attacks.

Conferring Resistance to Peer Pressure Among Adolescents Using Inoculation Theory to Discourage Alcohol Use

In this study, 417 sixth graders who were nondrinkers participated in a test of inoculation theory. Students viewed either a normative or information-based antidrinking public service announcement (PSA) or a neutral PSA unrelated to alcohol. Half of the students immediately saw a set of commercials that included beer advertisements. All students then completed a questionnaire measuring threat vulnerability, perceptions of peer acceptance of alcohol use, attitudes, and behavioral intentions. Two weeks later, the remaining group viewed the commercials. The students again completed the questionnaire. Immediately after viewing, the normative PSA produced lower estimations of peer acceptance of alcohol than did either the informational or neutral PSAs. When viewing commercials immediately following the PSAs, students were most resistant to persuasion both immediately following viewing and 2 weeks later. Path models revealed that estimates of peer acceptance and threat vulnerability affected resistance.

The Effects of Print News Photographs of the Casualties of War

This investigation examined effect of news photographs of Iraq war casualties on reader emotional response and attitudes about U.S. military presence, and the impact of inoculation pretreatments. Three print news conditions were used: photographs with caption, photographs accompanied by full text, and text. Photographs plus caption elicited greater emotional response and reduced support for continued U.S. presence, although effect sizes were small. A second study revealed that inoculation treatments reduced the influence, but effects were limited to women.

Inoculation Theory of Resistance to Influence at Maturity: Recent Progress In Theory Development and Application and Suggestions for Future Research

Inoculation theory boasts a dynamic history since McGuire first introduced it in the early 1960s. The last decade, in particular, has been a period of explosive growth for inoculation. Research has offered a more nuanced understanding of how inoculation confers resistance, exploring precise workings of inoculation’s core concepts of threat and coun-terarguing in conjunction with concepts drawn from other theoretical domains, including issue involvement, attitude accessibility, self-efficacy, and affect. Research is also extending practical applications of inoculation, examining new uses in marketing, public relations, politics, and adolescent health campaigns. The purpose of this chapter is to review the classic work on inoculation theory, examine recent developments that inform the workings of inoculation and its applications, and suggest directions for future research. The chapter also suggests extending the application of inoculation into the areas of childhood obesity, body image, gang activity, consumer protection, and employee satisfaction, among others.