Michael R. O'Leary

Social skill acquisition and psychosocial development of alcoholics: A review

Abstract Studies with data on male prealcoholics and alcoholics are reviewed. The review concentrates on studies which relate to social skill acquisition and the development of interpersonal competence. The role of modeling and family structure; peer relationships in high school, college and adult life; and the effects of alcohol on social responses are considered. The evidence suggests that a social skill acquisition model is a promising one for research on the development and maintenance of problem drinking behaviors.

Locus of Control Research on Alcoholic Populations: A Review. I. Development, Scales, and Treatment

Research literature dealing with the relationships of locus of control to alcoholism and the treatment of alcoholism is reviewed. The review includes a discussion of some of the scales used in this research, the relative locus of control of alcoholics compared with controls, the change in locus of control during treatment of alcoholics, and the relationship of locus of control to treatment success. Much of the research is inconclusive. Research on the control orientation of alcoholics compared to controls has had equivocal results, but the better designed studies tend to find no difference or externality in alcoholics. Most studies find that alcoholics become more internal over treatment, but the relationship of locus of control to treatment success is unclear. Methodological difficulties have included problems with sampling, selecting appropriate controls, assuming homogeneity of alcoholics as a group, and assuming linearity and unidimensionality of the scales. A number of needed studies which would clarify some of the questions are suggested.

Perceived locus of control experienced control, and depression: A trait description of the learned helplessness model of depression

This study examined a personality-trait approach to the learned helplessness model of depression. Alcoholics were assigned to four groups based upon differential scores on Rotters Locus of Control and Tiffanys Experienced Control Scales. Analysis of scores on the Beck Depression Inventory and the MMPI D scale indicated that Ss who reported that they had experienced minimal control over stressful events were significantly more depressed than Ss who reported relatively high levels of control. No significant locus of control effect was found. A significant interaction was obtained, which indicated that those Ss with an external locus of control and who experienced minimal control were significantly more depressed than thtical and empirical similarity between the present results and the learned helplessness model are discussed.

Assessment of cognitive recovery in alcoholics by use of the trail-making test.

Cognitive recovery among male alcoholics and controls was investigated with the Trail-Making Test as an index of cognitive impairment. The test was administered twice to all Ss with an interval of approximately 1 year between testings. A reported measures analysis of variance showed that the controls performed significantly better than the alcoholics at both administrations, although the alcoholics did improve between the pre-and posttests. Reported drinking episodes that occurred between the pre-and posttests appeared to have no effect on cognitive recovery in the alcoholic group when relapsed and abstinent subgroups were compared.

Group Embedded Figures Test Performance as a Predictor of Cognitive Impairment among Alcoholics

The present study investigated the sensitivity of the Group Embedded Figures Test (GEFT) as a predictor of cognitive impairment among alcoholics. The GEFT, Shipley-Hartford, and Memory-for-Designs tests were administered to 90 male alcoholics. GEFT performance correlated significantly with measures of impairment even when the influence of age and education were controlled. Field-dependent Ss performed at a significantly more impaired level on measures of abstract reasoning, perceptual-motor function, and short-term visual-spatial memory when compared with intermediate and field independent Ss; no differences were found among groups on general verbal ability. The results suggest that the GEFT might profitably be included in screening batteries for impaired cognitive function.

Locus of Control Research on Alcoholic Populations: A Review. II. Relationship to Other Measures

Research literature dealing with the relationships of locus of control to age, ability to function, and personality traits is reviewed. Results are contradictory on the relationship of locus of control in alcoholics to age, social desirability, and intellectual functioning. There is some tendency for internality to be related to better social functioning and the defenses of denial, intellectualization, and repression. There is some possible support for a relationship of externality and anxiety, and externality does appear related to helplessness, depression, isolation, general clinical pathology, and the defense of turning against another. No relationship has been found between locus of control and field dependence for alcoholics. Methodological difficulties have included problems with sampling, unsystematic research, assuming homogeneity of alcoholic samples, and assuming linearity and unidimensionality of the scales. Possible research which could clarify some of the areas are suggested.

The Defense Mechanism Inventory and Alcoholics

The utility of the Defense Mechanism Inventory (DMI) with alcoholic patients was evaluated by reviewing previous research and presenting new data concerning the test characteristics and the relationships between the DMI and various demographic, cognitive, and personality variables. In general, the defense mechansims of projection and turning against others was associated with greater anxiety, depression, and psychopathology. Utilization of the mechanisms of intellectualization and denial were related to lower levels of psychopathology. The construct validity of the DMI was questioned in view of the results obtained, and the utility of the measure for the prediction of treatment response of alcholics was discussed.

Differential alcohol use patterns and personality traits among three Alcoholics Anonymous attendance level groups: further considerations of the affiliation profile

The present study was designed to identify personality and drinking behavior correlates associated with membership in Alcoholics Anonymous (A.A.). Affiliation profiles were developed on the basis of frequency of A.A. attendance; subtypes were defined as non, low, and high affiliates, respectively. An initial canonical correlation analysis assessed the amount of common variance between personality and drinking characteristics. Subsequent discriminant function analyses on the second-order scales of the drinking and personality variables sets identified those variables differentiating the A.A. affiliated groups. High levels of affiliation were associated with a greater degree of anxiety, a tendency to be more affected by feelings rather than intellect, and more deterioration in the physical, exhibited significant differences in perceived benefits, style, and consequences of alcohol usage. The potential therapeutic utility of A.A. affiliation profiles was discussed.

Application of discriminant analysis to level of performance of alcoholics and nonalcoholics on Wechsler-Bellevue and Halstead-Reitan subtests

Investigated the utility of subtests from the Wechsler-Bellevue Intelligence Scale and the Halstead-Reitan Neuropsychological Test Battery to differentiate between alcoholics and nonalcoholics (N = 76). Analyses of variance indicated that the alcoholics were more impaired than nonalcoholics. It was found that the Wechsler-Bellevue Performance subtests were more discriminative than were Verbal subtests, with performance on the Halstead-Reitan variables being intermediate. The nine measures that differentiated most significantly between groups were subjected to a stepwise multivariate discriminant analysis. The resulting function correctly classified Ss with an overall accuracy of 74.7%. It was found that the Block Design subtest was the best single discriminator. The findings were discussed in relationship to previous findings and with respect to general issues of clinical neuropsychological assessment.

The relationship of perceptual field orientation to measures of cognitive functioning and current adaptive abilities in alcoholics and nonalcoholics.

The present study investigated the influence of perceptual field orientation, as measured by the Group Embedded Figures Test (GEFT), on cognitive functioning among alcoholics and nonalcoholics. The subjects were classified as field dependent, intermediate, or field independent based upon their GEFT scores. Cognitive function was assessed by the Wechsler-Bellevue Intelligence Scale as well as the Category Test. Tactual Performance Test, and Trail Making Tests of the Halstead-Reitan Neuropsychological Test Battery. Three primary findings emerged. First, the alcoholics appeared to be significantly impaired on measures of abstraction, problem solving, and adaptive abilities relative to nonalcoholics. Second, a direct relationship was found between GEFT scores and level of cognitive function within both alcoholic and nonalcoholic samples, with field-dependent subjects evidencing the most impaired performance. Third, the level of perceptual field orientation accounted for a large portion of the variance between the alcoholic and nonalcoholic samples, with field-independent alcoholics performing at a level comparable to or greater than other nonalcoholic subroups on a number of the cognitive variables. These results provide validational support for the GEFT and indicate that field orientation may be a relevant variable in the assessment of cognitive function in both alcoholics and nonalcoholics.