Michael Rogan

Gendered Trends in Poverty in the Post-Apartheid Period, 1997 - 2006

This study investigates whether trends in the extent and depth of poverty in South Africa over the past decade have been gendered. We examine whether females are more likely to live in poor households than males and whether this has changed over time, and how poverty has changed for female-headed and male-headed households. We use data from the 1997 and 1999 October Household Surveys and the 2004 and 2006 General Household Surveys, which have the advantage of collecting information on the individual receipt of social grant income. We find that although poverty rates have fallen for both males and females, and for male-headed and female-headed households, the decline has been larger for males and for male-headed households. Gender differences in poverty rates have therefore widened over the period. We show that these findings are robust to the possible underestimation of household income and to adjustments for household composition.

Women, income and poverty: Gendered access to resources in Post-Apartheid South Africa

abstract Far-reaching changes in the post-apartheid period in South Africa are likely to have affected gendered access to resources. In this Article, we use nationally representative household survey data to examine whether trends in the extent of income poverty over a recent ten-year period have been gendered. We find that females are more likely than males to live in poor households. Poverty rates have fallen from 1997 to 2006, and particularly following the expansion of the social grant system. However, the decline in poverty rates has been larger among males than among females. Higher levels of unemployment and lower earnings among women, as well as changes in household structure, help explain why the gender gap in poverty rates has widened over the period. We find also that female-headed households are far more vulnerable to income poverty than male-headed households and further, that the extent of poverty has fallen by more among households headed by men. However, we show that there are significant differences in poverty risks not only among female-headed households, but also among male-headed households, depending on the employment status of household members.

Alternative Definitions of Headship and the ‘Feminisation’ of Income Poverty in Post-Apartheid South Africa

Abstract In measuring gender differences in the risk of income poverty, many studies use female headship as a proxy for gender. However, a number of well-documented concerns with the use of self-reported headship as an analytical category have suggested that headship is often a relatively blunt unit of analysis. Against the backdrop of a large and growing difference in income poverty rates between self-reported female- and male-headed households in post-apartheid South Africa, this study considers several alternative definitions of headship that have been proposed in the development literature. The findings suggest that there is an association between self-reported female headship and a female household member being identified as the main breadwinner. However, the conventional definition of headship is likely to underestimate the growing risk of income poverty in female-headed households (relative to male-headed households) compared with several alternative definitions. The findings also suggest that alternative definitions of female headship may be more appropriate given the narrow way in which the household is defined in most national surveys. The article concludes with a discussion of the methodological and policy implications for alternative headship based studies of poverty.

Rites of passage to adulthood: traditional initiation schools in the context of HIV/AIDS in the Limpopo Province, South Africa

The HIV/AIDS epidemic and its disproportionate effect on the lives of young people has been a source of major concern in South Africa. Research has, until now, focussed on the broad cultural determinants of risky sexual behaviour among this group and on the barriers that impede the promotion of health seeking behaviour in the context of HIV/AIDS. Still missing is a dedicated investigation into the role of traditional rites of passage customs in influencing the sexual behaviour of young people. This article presents the findings from a study investigating the perceptions of young people from Venda, a former South African homeland under apartheid, of the cultural and educational importance of traditional initiation schools. The results of the study suggest that traditional initiation schools remain both an important rite of passage and source of sexual information for many young people. However, it is also discovered that initiation schools are not currently providing young people with the relevant information to adopt health-seeking behaviour in the era of HIV/AIDS.

The effects of gender and socioeconomic status on youth sexual-risk norms: evidence from a poor urban community in South Africa

HIV and AIDS remains one of the most serious problems facing youths in many sub-Saharan African countries. Among young people in South Africa, gender is linked with a number of HIV-risk behaviours and outcomes. The literature suggests that factors such as socioeconomic status, intimate partner violence, and several psychosocial factors contribute to gendered differences in sexual behaviour among youths in South Africa. However, the existing body of literature scarcely addresses the interaction between gender, confounding factors (particularly peer norms) and sexual behaviour outcomes. This study uses a survey design (n = 809) to examine how gender and socioeconomic status moderate the effects of norms and attitudes on higher-risk sexual behaviours among secondary school learners in a low-income community in South Africa. The findings suggest that gender interacts significantly with peer norms to predict sexual behaviour. Peer norms and the experience of intimate partner violence were significantly associated with sexual risk behaviour among girls participating in the study. The article discusses both the wider implications of these findings and the implications for school-based and peer-facilitated HIV interventions.

Emergency contraception in South Africa: a literature review.

Objectives Since emergency contraception (EC) products became available over the counter in South Africa in 2000 a number of studies have emerged. This paper reviews the growing body of literature on EC in that country. Methods Standard computer database searches identified published articles and reports on EC in South Africa. Results The level of awareness of EC is fairly low, especially among public sector clients. Most studies suggest that very few people have even heard of it. Several studies also indicate that provider knowledge of and attitude towards EC vary greatly. While many providers are aware of the indications and efficacy of the method, not all health care professionals are sufficiently knowledgeable and misperceptions persist. The limited knowledge of EC among health professionals may, in turn, prevent them from discussing it with clients. Conclusion The existing literature suggests that the greater availability of EC is not sufficient to increase uptake and that interventions are needed to ensure that women become aware of this option.

Missing opportunities for preventing unwanted pregnancy: a qualitative study of emergency contraception

Background and methodology High levels of unplanned pregnancy among young people are a huge public health problem in South Africa. However, use of emergency contraception (EC) remains low. Studies suggest that providers constitute an important link to increasing access to EC use. The aim of the study was to provide greater insights into the attitudes of providers towards EC in order to better understand factors influencing uptake. The study drew upon 30 in-depth interviews with providers at private and public health facilities in Durban, South Africa. Results The results of the study highlight several barriers to the provision of EC in both public and private health facilities. The cost of EC products in commercial pharmacies is likely to be a major barrier to use for many women. In addition, providers in both public and private facilities are often reluctant to provide EC over the counter because they feel that the use of EC is likely to discourage regular use of contraception and increase the risk of unprotected sexual intercourse and, as a result, contribute to the spread of HIV/AIDS in South Africa. In addition, they reported that they do not have an opportunity to counsel women about EC because of time constraints. Providers in both the public and private sectors also demonstrated a level of uncertainty about the clinical effects of EC pills and on the regulations surrounding their provision. Discussion and conclusions Despite relatively progressive legislation on EC provision and the widespread availability of EC products in South Africa, providers in pharmacies, family planning clinics and public health clinics need more training on EC provision. Interventions should aim to educate health providers on both the clinical and social aspects of EC provision.