Michael S. Cole

The workplace social exchange network: A multilevel, conceptual examination.

In this article, the authors present a framework (the Workplace Social Exchange Network) that draws from multiple streams of social exchange research. The authors attempt to provide an integrative, cross-level theory for understanding the diverse social exchanges that occur in the work-place. Within the workplace, there are a number of social exchanges that may take place between an individual and (a) the organization, (b) their supervisor, and (c) their work group. Surprisingly, researchers have overlooked the influence of social exchanges between employees and their work groups. To the authors’ knowledge, this is the first article that collectively discusses the influences and interactions between the three predominate social exchange domains. In addition, the authors provide testable propositions that specify relationships between domains of exchange relationships, moderating organizational factors, and employee outcomes.

Job Burnout and Employee Engagement A Meta-Analytic Examination of Construct Proliferation

Drawing on 50 unique samples (from 37 studies), the authors used meta-analytical techniques to assess the extent to which job burnout and employee engagement are independent and useful constructs. The authors found that (a) dimension-level correlations between burnout and engagement are high, (b) burnout and engagement dimensions exhibit a similar pattern of association with correlates, and (c) controlling for burnout in meta-regression equations substantively reduced the effect sizes associated with engagement. These findings suggest that doubts about the functional distinctiveness of the dimensions underlying burnout and engagement cannot be dismissed as pure speculation.

Shared Authentic Leadership and New Venture Performance

This study applied affective events theory (AET) as a framework for understanding the relationship between the shared authentic leadership of new venture top management teams (TMTs) and the performance of their firms. Results, based on a national (United States) random sample of new ventures, demonstrated a positive indirect effect of shared authentic leadership behavior on firm performance, an effect that operated through TMTs’ positive affective tone. These findings contribute to entrepreneurship and strategic management literatures by illustrating that AET (a micro-level theory) is a conceptually relevant framework for understanding the impact of TMTs on firm performance (i.e., upper echelons theory and research). With respect to the leadership and organizational behavior literatures, the authors’ results indicate that authentic leadership may be particularly beneficial when shared among team members.

The Measurement Equivalence of Web-Based and Paper-and-Pencil Measures of Transformational Leadership A Multinational Test

Multigroup confirmatory factor analysis was applied to the responses of 4, 909 employees of a multinational organization with locations in 50 countries to examine the measurement equivalence of otherwise identical Web-based and paper-and-pencil versions of 20 items comprising the transformational leadership component of Bass and Avolios Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire. The results supported configural, metric, scalar, measurement error, and relational equivalence across administration modes, indicating that the psychometric properties of the 20 items were similar whether administered as a paper-and-pencil or Web-based measure. Although caution is always advised when considering multiple modes of administration, the results suggest that there are minimal measurement differences for well-developed, psychometrically sound instruments applied using either a paper-and-pencil or an online format. Thus, the results open a methodological door for survey researchers wishing to (a) assess transformational leadership with a Web-based platform and (b) compare or combine responses collected with paper-and-pencil and Web-based applications.

A Measure of Variations in Internal Social Capital Among Family Firms

Drawing on the social capital literature, this study develops a new measure to assess the internal social capital using a sample of family firms and its effect on economic and noneconomic performance. We collected data from two independent samples to explore the importance of family businesses’ internal social capital as assessed by a new instrument—the internal social capital among family business (ISC–FB). Results from confirmatory factor analyses, convergent and discriminant validity assessments, and predictive and incremental validity offered support for the ISC–FBs construct validity. Finally, we cross–validated the hypothesized factor structure with a second sample of family firms. Implications and future research using this measure are proposed.

Social distance as a moderator of the effects of transformational leadership: Both neutralizer and enhancer

Following recent interest in contextual factors and how they might influence the effects of transformational leadership, we consider the social distance between leaders and followers as a cross-level moderator of the relationships between senior level managers’ transformational leadership and individual-level outcomes. Our sample comprised 268 individuals in 50 leader-follower groups. Results revealed that high social distance reduced or neutralized transformational leadership’s association with followers’ emulation of leader behavior. In contrast, high levels of social distance between leaders and followers enhanced the effects of transformational leadership on individuals’ perceptions of their units’ positive emotional climate and individuals’ sense of collective efficacy. Results not only highlight the importance of social distance as a contextual variable affecting leader-follower relations but also suggest that the same contextual variable may have differential effects, enhancing some relationships and neutralizing others.

A Top Management Team's Reactions to Organizational Transformation: The Diagnostic Benefits of Five Key Change Sentiments

Abstract From research dating to the 1940s, we identified five precursor sentiments deemed important by organizational scientists studying reactions of organizational change recipients. Collectively, these sentiments constitute a framework for understanding reactions to change. We investigated the validity and utility of the framework for assessing the progress of an organizational change by using it to guide the analysis of qualitative interview data collected from a top management team as part of an assessment of a major organizational change. We demonstrate that the five-sentiment framework provides a useful and reliable tool for coding interview responses. In addition, the data, thus coded, provided very useful insight into the underlying concerns regarding the change. We suggest that the five sentiment framework is a useful guide for diagnosing change progress and planning measures to correct change shortcomings.

Developing and Testing a Dynamic Model of Workplace Incivility Change

Theory and practice suggest workplace incivility is progressive and dynamic. To date, however, workplace incivility has been assessed as a between-person phenomenon by asking employees to summarize their exposure to incivility over some specific period (e.g., 1 year or 5 years). Consequently, little is known about the time-varying and progressive aspects of workplace incivility as suggested by both the referent literature and experience. Within the context of employee burnout and withdrawal, we developed a novel, dynamic mediated model of workplace incivility change and tested specific predictions about its time-sequential effects. Latent change score modeling of weekly survey data from 131 employees indicates that incivility change uniquely affects subsequent changes in burnout, which, in turn, lead to subsequent changes in turnover cognitions. We also explore whether this dynamic mediated effect varies across time and individuals.

Viewing the interpersonal mistreatment literature through a temporal lens

Given increasing awareness of time’s critical role, we assess the current position of time in the workplace mistreatment literature. Focusing on four mistreatment constructs (viz., abusive supervision, workplace bullying, workplace incivility, and social undermining) found in the organizational psychology literature, our search revealed 266 studies that have empirically examined the consequences of these forms of interpersonal mistreatment. We examine and critique these studies, finding that with a few exceptions, most have failed to design and test theoretical relationships in a manner consistent with construct definitions. As interpersonal mistreatment research has neglected the role of time, we conclude that the substantial number of existing studies offer limited insight into the true nature of mistreatment’s consequences over time. We go on to elaborate on the types of theoretical insights that might emerge when a temporal lens (objective time and/or subjective time) is adopted by mistreatment researchers.

Control Variables in Leadership Research: A Qualitative and Quantitative Review:

Statistical control of extraneous (i.e., third) variables is a common analytic tool among leadership researchers. While such a strategy is typically assumed to prove beneficial, it can actually introduce various complications that are underestimated or even ignored. This study investigates and summarizes the current state of control variable usage in leadership research by qualitatively and quantitatively examining the use of statistical control variables in 10 highly regarded management and applied psychology journals. Despite available “best practices,” our results indicate that control variable usage in existing leadership studies is rarely grounded in theory but instead frequently relies on outdated misconceptions. Moreover, a meta-analysis of the relationships between popular control variables and leadership constructs finds nearly universal weak effect sizes, suggesting that many studies may not only be losing valuable degrees of freedom but also making inferences based on biased parameter estimates. To address these issues, we put forth a number of recommendations to assist leadership scholars with determining whether potential third variables should be controlled for in their leadership research.