Michael T. Belongia

Measurement Matters: Recent Results from Monetary Economics Reexamined

Inferences about the effects of money on economic activity may depend importantly on the choice of a monetary index because simple-sum aggregates cannot internalize pure substitution effects. This hypothesis is investigated by replicating five recent studies that have challenged an aspect of the conventional wisdom about the effects of money on aggregate activity. In four of the five cases, the qualitative inference in the original study is reversed when a simple-sum monetary aggregate is replaced by a Divisia index of the same asset collection. The results are mixed in the fifth case.

The Changing Empirical Definition of Money: Some Estimates from a Model of the Demand for Money Substitutes

Interest-bearing checkable deposits are examined to test whether they should be included in measures of the U.S. money stock. Both Divisia and traditional simple-sum aggregates are constructed on the basis of tests for weak separability in a model of the demand for financial assets. Using nonparametric demand analysis, we find that several groups of assets are compatible with aggregation theory. We find empirical support for a narrow measure consisting of the components of current MIA. In tests based on a St. Louis equation and in terms of controllability, a Divisia aggregate performs better than the simple-sum MIA measure.

The Own-Price of Money and a New Channel of Monetary Transmission

Traditionally, the effects of monetary policy actions on output are thought to be transmitted via monetary or credit channels. Real business cycle theory, by contrast, highlights the role of real price changes as a source of revisions in spending and production decisions. Motivated by the desire to focus on the effects of price changes in the monetary transmission mechanism, this paper incorporates a direct measure of the real own-price of money into an estimated vector autoregression and a calibrated real business cycle model. Consistent with the RBC view of the monetary transmission mechanism, both approaches reveal that movements in the own-price of money are strongly related to movements in output.

Interest Rates and Money in the Measurement of Monetary Policy

Over the last 25 years, a set of influential studies has placed interest rates at the heart of analyses that interpret and evaluate monetary policies. In light of this work, the Federal Reserves recent policy of “quantitative easing,” with its goal of affecting the supply of liquid assets, appears to be a radical break from standard practice. Alternatively, one could posit that the monetary aggregates, when measured properly, never lost their ability to explain aggregate fluctuations and, for this reason, represent an important omission from standard models and policy discussions. In this context, the new policy initiatives can be characterized simply as conventional attempts to increase money growth. This view is supported by evidence that superlative (Divisia) measures of money often help in forecasting movements in key macroeconomic variables. Moreover, the statistical fit of a structural vector autoregression deteriorates significantly if such measures of money are excluded when identifying monetary policy shocks. These results cast doubt on the adequacy of conventional models that focus on interest rates alone. They also highlight that all monetary disturbances have an important “quantitative” component, which is captured by movements in a properly measured monetary aggregate.

A "Working" Solution to the Question of Nominal GDP Targeting ∗

Although a number of economists have tried to revive the idea of nominal GDP targeting since the financial market collapse of 2008, relatively little has been offered in terms of a specific framework for how this objective might be achieved in practice. In this paper we adopt a strategy outlined by Holbrook Working (1923) and employed, with only minor modifications, by Hallman, et al. (1991) in the P-Star model. We then present a series of theoretical and empirical results to show that Divisia monetary aggregates can be controlled by the Federal Reserve and that the trend velocities of these aggregates, by virtue of the properties of superlative indexes, exhibit the stability required to make long-run targeting feasible.