Michael W. Kernodle

Information feedback and the learning of multiple-degree-of-freedom activities

The influence of information feedback on the learning of a multiple-degree-of-freedom activity, the overhand throw, was investigated. During learning, feedback was presented in the form of knowledge of results, knowledge of performance, knowledge of performance with attention-focusing cues, or knowledge of performance with error-correcting transitional information. Across 12 practice sessions, performance was assessed with respect to both throwing distance and throwing form. Subjects provided with knowledge of performance along with transitional information demonstrated significant gains in throwing distance, compared with subjects receiving knowledge of performance or knowledge of results alone. Movement form ratings followed the same trend. Providing learners with cues to focus their attention on the relevant aspects of knowledge of performance or directly providing transitional information was a better aid to the acquisition of throwing form than providing knowledge of results or knowledge of performance alone. These results support the hypothesis that knowledge of results may not be the most potent form of feedback in multiple-degree-of-freedom activities and that knowledge of performance, when combined with additional information, can lead to significant gains in skill acquisition.

Mapping two new points on the tennis expertise continuum: Tactical skills of adult advanced beginners and entry-level professionals during competition

Abstract Research examining problem representations of individuals during task performance is advancing our understanding of information processing and expertise in a variety of sports. However, few studies using similar methodology have been conducted on individuals of various competitive standards in one domain in similar contexts. This study examined problem representations of adult advanced beginners and entry-level professionals accessed during singles tennis competition (n = 12). These groups were selected to represent players with performance skills that were different from those studied previously (i.e. adult beginners and varsity players). Immediate recall and planning interviews were conducted between points during singles tennis competition. Players competed within their respective expertise groups. Verbal reports were transcribed verbatim and concepts were scored according to a model of protocol structure. Several multivariate analyses of variance were conducted on rank scores for measures of concept content and structure using the L-statistic. Entry-level professionals exhibited more advanced problem representations than advanced beginners regardless of interview type. These findings together with those of previous research suggest adaptations in long-term memory profiles with increases in performance skills. For example, beginners lacked action plan and current event profiles because they generated goals and reiterated game events during both interviews. Advanced beginners, who had better performance skills than beginners, exhibited rudimentary action plan profiles and deficient current event profiles because they generated and monitored several detailed actions related to the current context during recall interviews and generated only a few goals during planning interviews. In contrast, varsity players and professionals processed tactical information in the current context and beyond denoting the existence of both action plan and current event profiles. Varsity players, with inferior performance skills than professionals, exhibited fewer and less associated tactical concepts than professionals during both interviews.

The Acute Response of the Immune System to Tennis Drills in Adolescent Athletes

any components of the immune system exhibit M change after intensive and prolonged exertion, including neutrophilia (high blood neutrophil counts), lymphopenia (low blood lymphocyte counts), decrease in natural killer cell cytotoxic activity, decrease in mitogeninduced lymphocyte proliferation (a measure of T cell function), increase in plasma concentrations of proand anti-inflammatory cytokines, for example, interleukin-6 ( I M ) , interleukin-10 (ILlO), and interleukin-1 recep tor antagonist (ILlra) , decrease in ex vivo production of cytokines in response to mitogens, and decrease in nasal and salivary IgA concentration (see reviews by Gabriel & Kindermann, 1997; Mackinnon, 1999; Nieman, 1997; Nieman & NehlsenCannarella, 1994). Depending on the immune measure, these changes take from 3 hr to 3 days to return to pre-exercise levels. Together, these data suggest that the immune system is suppressed and stressed, albeit transiently, following prolonged endurance exercise.

VERBAL INSTRUCTION FOR CORRECTING ERRORS VERSUS SUCH INSTRUCTIONS PLUS VIDEOTAPE REPLAY ON LEARNING THE OVERHAND THROW

The influence of two methods of providing information to women, ages 19 to 22 years who were novices and learning the overhand throw with the non-dominant arm, was examined. One group received verbal information on correcting errors, and a second group received the same information immediately prior to viewing a videotaped replay of a just-completed throw. Performance was assessed quantitatively with respect to outcome (distance thrown) and qualitatively with respect to throwing form as measured on a 7-point rating scale by judges with a working knowledge of the overhand throw and with respect to throwing mechanics rated by a panel of experts in biomechanics using a scale of Leme and Shambes. Although the treatments led to better learning and performance, there was no significant difference between groups for distance thrown on the Leme and Shambes scale in Sessions 1–6 of 10 trials each on Session 7. The mean rating also indicated increased scores for both groups and better retention at posttest by the group receiving only verbal corrections. These results suggest that information provided by adding videotaped replay may be redundant and unnecessary for those in Sessions 1–6.

OBSERVATIONAL LEARNING OF FLY CASTING USING TRADITIONAL AND VIRTUAL MODELING WITH AND WITHOUT AUTHORITY FIGURE

Traditional and virtual modeling were compared during learning of a multiple degree-of-freedom skill (fly casting) to assess the effect of the presence or absence of an authority figure on observational learning via virtual modeling. Participants were randomly assigned to one of four groups: Virtual Modeling with an authority figure present (VM-A) (n = 16), Virtual Modeling without an authority figure (VM-NA) (n = 16), Traditional Instruction (n = 17), and Control (n = 19). Results showed significant between-group differences on Form and Skill Acquisition scores. Except for one instance, all three learning procedures resulted in significant learning of fly casting. Virtual modeling with or without an authority figure present was as effective as traditional instruction; however, learning without an authority figure was less effective with regard to Accuracy scores.

Using Multiple Intelligences to Teach Tennis

Abstract The theory of multiple intelligences has wide application, but few articles have discussed how to use it to improve the teaching of a specific unit in physical education.

Qualitative Analysis of the Overhand Throw by Undergraduates in Education Using a Distance Learning Computer Program

The purpose was to (a) examine whether computer-based distance learning could enhance the qualitative analysis skills (error detection in the overhand throw) of undergraduates in education and (b) examine the effectiveness of several methods of information presentation (video file and text) on distance learning. Participants were randomly assigned to 1 of 4 groups, to detect errors in an incorrect throwing motion of a model on the computer screen. Group 1 (n = 13) was the control; Group 2 (n = 13) viewed a video of the appropriate throwing mechanics; Group 3 (n = 13) viewed text information describing the appropriate mechanics of the overhand throw; and Group 4 (n = 16) received a combination of video and text information. On Day 1 participants took a pretest. Treatment and testing occurred on Days 2 through 8. Then 5 days later participants took a retention test. One-way analysis of variance confirmed no significant differences between groups at Pretest (Day 1). An analysis of variance with repeated measures indicated learning over practice. Paired-sample t tests between Days 1 and 8 showed the video plus text group without significant change.

Physical Activity Patterns of College Students with and without High School Physical Education

The purpose of this study was to examine differences in physical activity patterns of high school graduates in Texas who completed physical education class credit during high school and those who did not but who were varsity athletes. A questionnaire was designed and tested for reliability prior to being administered to 201 college students. Analysis indicated that participants who completed high school physical education class credit do not currently participate in regular physical activity as mucn as those who were not required to complete such credit. Conversely, athletes who did not participate in physical education reported currently engaging in more cardiovascular exercise and team sports than the physical education students during high school.