Michaela Kolbe

TeamGAINS: a tool for structured debriefings for simulation-based team trainings

Background Improving patient safety by training teams to successfully manage emergencies is a major concern in healthcare. Most current trainings use simulation of emergency situations to practice and reflect on relevant clinical and behavioural skills. We developed TeamGAINS, a hybrid, structured debriefing tool for simulation-based team trainings in healthcare that integrates three different debriefing approaches: guided team self-correction, advocacy-inquiry and systemic-constructivist techniques. Methods TeamGAINS was administered during simulation-based trainings for clinical and behavioural skills for anaesthesia staff. One of the four daily scenarios involved all trainees, whereas the remaining three scenarios each involved only two trainees with the others observing them. Training instructors were senior anaesthesiologists and psychologists. To determine debriefing quality, we used a post-test-only (debriefing quality) and a pre-post-test (psychological safety, leader inclusiveness), no-control-group design. After each debriefing all trainees completed a self-report debriefing quality scale which we developed based on the Debriefing Assessment for Simulation in Healthcare and the Observational Structured Assessment of Debriefing. Perceived psychological safety and leader inclusiveness were measured before trainees’ first (premeasure) and after their last debriefing (postmeasure) at which time trainees’ reactions to the overall training were measured as well. Results Four senior anaesthetists, 29 residents and 28 nurses participated in a total of 40 debriefings resulting in 235 evaluations. Utility of debriefings was evaluated as highly positive. Pre-post comparisons revealed that psychological safety and leader inclusiveness significantly increased after the debriefings. Conclusions The results indicate that TeamGAINS could provide a useful debriefing tool for training anaesthesia staff on all levels of work experience. By combining state-of-the-art debriefing methods and integrating systemic-constructivist techniques, TeamGAINS has the potential to allow for a surfacing, reflecting on and changing of the dynamics of team interactions. Further research is necessary to systematically compare the effects of TeamGAINS’ components on the debriefing itself and on trainees’ changes in attitudes and behaviours.

Speaking up is related to better team performance in simulated anesthesia inductions: an observational study.

BACKGROUND:Our goal in this study was to test the relationship between speaking up—i.e., questioning, correcting, or clarifying a current procedure—and technical team performance in anesthesia. Hypothesis 1: team members’ higher levels of speaking up are related to higher levels of technical team performance. Hypothesis 2: team members will react to speaking up by either clarifying their procedure or initiating a procedural change. Hypothesis 3: higher levels of speaking up during an earlier phase of teamwork will be related to higher levels of speaking up during a later phase. METHODS:This prospective observational study involved 2-person ad hoc anesthesia teams performing simulated inductions of general anesthesia with minor nonroutine events (e.g., bradycardia) in a large teaching hospital. Subjects were registered anesthesia nurses and residents. Each team consisted of 1 nurse and 1 resident. Synchronized video and vital parameter recordings were obtained. Two trained observers blinded to the hypotheses coded speaking up and further team communication and coordination behavior on the basis of 12 distinct categories. All teamwork measures were quantified as percentage of total time spent on the respective teamwork category. Two experienced staff anesthesiologists blinded to the hypotheses evaluated technical team performance using a Delphi-validated rating checklist. Hypotheses 1 and 3 were tested using linear regression with residents’ and nurses’ levels of speaking up as 2 separate predictor variables. Hypothesis 2 was analyzed using lag sequential analysis, resulting in Z values representing the extent to which the observed value for a conditional transition significantly differs from its unconditional value. RESULTS:Thirty-one nurses and 31 residents participated. Technical team performance could be predicted by the level of speaking up from nurses (R2 = 0.18, P = 0.017) but not from residents (R2 = 0.19, P = 0.053); this result supports Hypothesis 1 for nurses. Supporting Hypothesis 2, residents reacted to speaking up with clarifying the procedure by providing information (Z = 18.08, P < 0.001), initiating procedural change by giving instructions (Z = 4.74, P < 0.001) and team member monitoring (Z = 3, P = 0.0013). Likewise, nurses reacted with clarifying the procedure by providing or evaluating information (Z = 16.09, P < 0.001; Z = 3.72, P < 0.001) and initiating procedural change by providing assistance (Z = 0.57, P < 0.001). Indicating a trend for Hypothesis 3, nurses’ level of speaking up before intubation predicted their level of speaking up during intubation (R2 = 0.15, P = 0.034), although this did not reach the Bonferroni-corrected significance level of P = 0.025. No respective relationship was found for residents (R2 = 0.15, P = 0.096). CONCLUSIONS:This study provides empirical evidence and shows mechanisms for the positive relationship between speaking-up behavior and technical team performance.

Interactions of Team Mental Models and Monitoring Behaviors Predict Team Performance in Simulated Anesthesia Inductions

In the present study, we investigated how two team mental model properties (similarity vs. accuracy) and two forms of monitoring behavior (team vs. systems) interacted to predict team performance in anesthesia. In particular, we were interested in whether the relationship between monitoring behavior and team performance was moderated by team mental model properties. Thirty-one two-person teams consisting of anesthesia resident and anesthesia nurse were videotaped during a simulated anesthesia induction of general anesthesia. Team mental models were assessed with a newly developed measurement tool based on the concept-mapping technique. Monitoring behavior was coded by two organizational psychologists using a structured observation system. Team performance was rated by two expert anesthetists using a performance-checklist. Moderated multiple regression analysis revealed that team mental model similarity moderated the relationship between team monitoring and performance; a higher level of team monitoring in the absence of a similar team mental model had a negative effect on performance. Furthermore, team mental model similarity and accuracy interacted to predict team performance. Our findings provide new insights on factors influencing the relationship between team processes and team performance in health care. When investigating the effectiveness of a specific team coordination behavior, team cognition has to be taken into account. This represents a necessary and compelling extension of the popular process-outcome relationship on which previous teamwork research in health care has focused. Moreover, the current study adds further external validity to the concept of team mental models by highlighting its usefulness in health care.

Adaptive coordination and heedfulness make better cockpit crews

Team coordination during a simulated clean approach performed by 42 civil aviation cockpit crews was analysed. Several hypotheses regarding the adaptive use of implicit and explicit coordination, leadership and heedful interrelating were tested. The results indicate the adaptiveness of coordination to different levels of standardisation and task load and the general importance of explicit coordination for good performance. Leadership seems to be required mainly for work phases with little standardisation. In exploratory lag sequential analyses, heedful behaviour in the seven best and six worst performing crews was examined. The coordination sequences in high performance crews were found to be more succinct and well balanced, indicating that a shared sense of heedfulness is crucial for effectiveness. Theoretical implications for the conceptualisation of adaptive coordination and heedfulness and practical implications for improving crew training are discussed. Statement of Relevance: Analyses of team coordination during a simulated clean approach performed by civil aviation cockpit crews demonstrated the occurrence and effectiveness of adaptive coordination in response to different levels of task load and standardisation. Results also indicated the importance of heedful interrelating, both as a form of coordination and as a way of regulating the adaptiveness of coordination efforts. These findings have important implications for improving crew training, leadership practices and possibly also standard operating procedures.

Leadership in anaesthesia teams: the most effective leadership is shared

Background Leadership plays a crucial role in teams working in complex environments, and research has shown that shared leadership where all team members perform leadership functions is an effective strategy. The authors aimed to describe shared leadership patterns during anaesthesia induction and show how they are linked to team performance. Methods 12 anaesthesia teams consisting of one resident and one nurse during a simulated anaesthesia induction including a non-routine event (asystole) were videotaped, and two kinds of leadership behaviour (content-oriented and structuring) were coded. Team performance was operationalised as the reaction time to the non-routine event. The amount of leadership sharedness was compared between low- and high-performing teams by performing a univariate analysis of variance. Wilcoxon signed-rank tests were used to analyse the distribution of the two kinds of leadership behaviour among team members. Results Statistical analysis revealed that in high-performing teams, residents and nurses shared their leadership, while in low-performing teams, residents showed significantly higher levels of leadership behaviour than nurses. Further analyses revealed different distributions of leadership functions among team members. While residents of low-performing teams assumed both kinds of leadership behaviour, members of high-performing teams seemed to have distinct leadership roles: nurses mainly used content-oriented leadership behaviour, and residents tended to show structuring leadership behaviour. Conclusions The study documents the effectiveness of shared leadership in situations with high task complexity and indicates that a clear distribution of content-oriented and structuring leadership among team members is an effective strategy. The findings have implications for training in shared leadership and also give rise to a number of recommendations for further research. ClinicalTrials (http://www.clinicaltrials.gov) registration number is NCT00706108.

Adaptation in anaesthesia team coordination in response to a simulated critical event and its relationship to clinical performance

BACKGROUND Recent studies in anaesthesia and intensive care indicate that a teams ability to adapt its coordination activities to changing situational demands is crucial for effective teamwork and thus, safe patient care. This study addresses the relationship between adaptation of team coordination and markers of clinical performance in response to a critical event, particularly regarding which types of coordination activities are used and which team member engages in those coordination activities. METHODS Video recordings of 15 two-person anaesthesia teams (anaesthesia trainee plus anaesthesia nurse) performing a simulated induction of general anaesthesia were coded, using a structured observation system for coordination activities. The simulation involved a critical event-asystole during laryngoscopy. Clinical performance was assessed using two separate reaction times related to the critical event. RESULTS Analyses of variance revealed a significant effect of the critical event on team coordination: after the occurrence of the asystole, team members adapted their coordination activities by spending more time on information management-a specific type of coordination activity (F(1,28)=15.17, P=0.001). No significant effect was found for task management. The increase in information management was related to faster decisions regarding how to respond to the critical event, but only for trainees and not for nurses. CONCLUSIONS Our findings support the claim that adaptation of coordination activities is related to improved team performance in healthcare. Moreover, adaptation and its relationship to team performance were found to vary with regard to type of coordination activities and team member.

Monitoring and talking to the room: autochthonous coordination patterns in team interaction and performance

This paper builds on and extends theory on team functioning in high-risk environments. We examined 2 implicit coordination behaviors that tend to emerge autochthonously within high-risk teams: team member monitoring and talking to the room. Focusing on nonrandom patterns of behavior, we examined sequential patterns of team member monitoring and talking to the room in higher- and lower-performing action teams working in a high-risk health care environment. Using behavior observation methods, we coded verbal and nonverbal behaviors of 27 anesthesia teams performing an induction of general anesthesia in a natural setting and assessed team performance with a Delphi-validated checklist-based performance measure. Lag sequential analyses revealed that higher-performing teams were characterized by patterns in which team member monitoring was followed by speaking up, providing assistance, and giving instructions and by patterns in which talking to the room was followed by further talking to the room and not followed by instructions. Higher- and lower-performing teams did not differ with respect to the frequency of team member monitoring and talking to the room occurrence. The results illustrate the importance of patterns of autochthonous coordination behaviors and demonstrate that the interaction patterns, as opposed to the behavior frequencies, discriminated higher- from lower-performing teams. Implications for future research and for team training are included. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2014 APA, all rights reserved).

Substitutes for leadership in anaesthesia teams and their impact on leadership effectiveness

In this study we aim to increase our understanding of leadership in anaesthesia teams by investigating the relationship between substitutes for leadership, leadership behaviour, and team performance in situations with varying levels of routine and standardization. The present study relied on video recordings of 12 anaesthesia teams in a simulated setting with the occurrence of a nonroutine event. Clinical team performance was measured by the speed of adequate team reaction to this event. The leadership behaviours observed were coded either as content oriented (e.g., information transmission) or structuring (e.g., assigning tasks). Results showed that leadership behaviour changed depending upon the level of routine of a situation, the degree of standardization, and, to some extent, on the experience of team members. Leadership tends to be positively related to team performance during nonroutine and low standardized situations but negatively related to team performance in routine and highly standardized situations. Furthermore, leadership is only slightly related to team member experience. This study improves our understanding of influences of substitutes for leadership on successful leadership behaviour in anaesthesia teams. The findings also lead to suggestions for both further research and the enhancement of team leadership in critical care.

Improving Anesthesiologists' Ability to Speak Up in the Operating Room: A Randomized Controlled Experiment of a Simulation-Based Intervention and a Qualitative Analysis of Hurdles and Enablers.

Purpose The authors addressed three questions: (1) Would a realistic simulation-based educational intervention improve speaking-up behaviors of practicing nontrainee anesthesiologists? (2) What would those speaking-up behaviors be when the issue emanated from a surgeon, a circulating nurse, or an anesthesiologist colleague? (3) What were the hurdles and enablers to speaking up in those situations? Method The authors conducted a simulation-based randomized controlled experiment from March 2008–February 2011 at the Center for Medical Simulation, Boston, Massachusetts. During a mandatory crisis management course for practicing nontrainee anesthesiologists from five Boston institutions, a 50-minute workshop on speaking up was conducted for intervention (n = 35) and control (n = 36) groups before or after, respectively, an experimental scenario with three events. The authors analyzed videos of the experimental scenarios and debriefing sessions. Results No statistically significant differences between the intervention and control group subjects with respect to speaking-up actions were observed in any of the three events. The five most frequently mentioned hurdles to speaking up were uncertainty about the issue, stereotypes of others on the team, familiarity with the individual, respect for experience, and the repercussion expected. The five most frequently mentioned enablers were realizing the speaking-up problem, having a speaking-up rubric, certainty about the consequences of speaking up, familiarity with the individual, and having a second opinion or getting help. Conclusions An educational intervention alone was ineffective in improving the speaking-up behaviors of practicing nontrainee anesthesiologists. Other measures to change speaking-up behaviors could be implemented and might improve patient safety.

Briefing and debriefing during simulation-based training and beyond: Content, structure, attitude and setting

In this article, we review the debriefing literature and point to the dilemma that although debriefings especially intend to enhance team (rather than individual) learning, it is particularly this team setting that poses risks for debriefing effectiveness (e.g., preference-consistent information sharing, lack of psychological safety inhibiting structured information sharing, ineffective debriefing models). These risks can be managed with a mindful approach with respect to content (e.g., specific learning objectives), structure (e.g., reactions phase, analysis phase, summary phase), attitude (e.g., honesty, curiosity, holding the trainee in positive regard) and setting (e.g., briefings to provide orientation and establish psychological safety). We point to the potential of integrating systemic methods such as circular questions into debriefings, discuss the empirical evidence for debriefing effectiveness and highlight the importance of faculty development.