Michaela Patz

Comparison of the in vitro effects of the anti-CD20 antibodies rituximab and GA101 on chronic lymphocytic leukaemia cells

The effects of two CD20 antibodies, namely rituximab, the current standard for treatment of chronic lymphocytic leukaemia (CLL) in combination with chemotherapy, and GA101, a glyco‐engineered type II antibody were compared on CLL cells ex vivo. Antibody‐induced phosphatidylserine exposure was examined in isolated CLL cells. For a more comprehensive assessment of antibody‐mediated cell killing including Fc‐mediated mechanisms, B cell depletion from whole blood samples was monitored. Treatment with rituximab or GA101 reduced the average viability of isolated CLL cells by 6% or 11%, and the ratio of B to T cells in whole blood samples by 12% or 33%, respectively. Combination with GA101 enhanced the cytotoxicity of the chemotherapeutic agent chlorambucil on isolated CLL cells. CD20 surface expression on CLL cells correlated with GA101‐induced B cell depletion, but not with direct cell death induction. Treatment of whole blood samples from CLL patients with a CpG‐containing oligonucleotide increased CD20 expression on CLL cells and GA101‐dependent B cell depletion. Despite the variable responses of individual CLL samples, the CLL cell depletion from whole blood by GA101 was consistently much stronger than by rituximab, which argues for clinical investigation of GA101 in CLL patients.

The kinase inhibitor dasatinib induces apoptosis in chronic lymphocytic leukemia cells in vitro with preference for a subgroup of patients with unmutated IgVH genes

Src family kinases (SFKs) were described to be overexpressed in chronic lymphocytic leukemia (CLL). We wished to examine the effects of the Src and Abl kinase inhibitor dasatinib on the intracellular signaling and survival of CLL cells. Dasa-tinib showed a dose- and time-dependent reduction of global tyrosine phosphorylation and of activating phosphotyrosine levels of SFKs. Treatment with 100 nM dasatinib led to decreased levels of the activated, phosphorylated forms of Akt, Erk1/2, and p38, and induced PARP cleavage through caspase activity. In Mec1 and JVM-3 cell lines, dasatinib increased p53 protein levels and inhibited proliferation. In freshly isolated CLL cells, dasatinib reduced the expression of Mcl-1 and Bcl-x(L). Combination of 5 microM dasatinib and fludarabine increased the apoptosis induction of each by approximately 50%. In 15 primary CLL samples, cells with unmutated immunoglobulin variable heavy chain (IgV(H)) genes were more sensitive to dasatinib than those with mutated IgV(H) genes (P = .002). In summary, dasatinib shows potent inhibitory effects on the survival of CLL cells in vitro, most prominently in samples obtained from patients with unfavorable prognostic features.

B-cell receptor triggers drug sensitivity of primary CLL cells by controlling glucosylation of ceramides

Survival of chronic lymphocytic leukemia (CLL) cells is triggered by several stimuli, such as the B-cell receptor (BCR), CD40 ligand (CD40L), or interleukin-4 (IL-4). We identified that these stimuli regulate apoptosis resistance by modulating sphingolipid metabolism. Applying liquid chromatography electrospray ionization tandem mass spectrometry, we revealed a significant decrease of proapoptotic ceramide in BCR/IL-4/CD40L-stimulated primary CLL cells compared with untreated controls. Antiapoptotic glucosylceramide levels were significantly increased after BCR cross-linking. We identified BCR engagement to catalyze the crucial modification of ceramide to glucosylceramide via UDP-glucose ceramide glucosyltransferase (UGCG). Besides specific UGCG inhibitors, our data demonstrate that IgM-mediated UGCG expression was inhibited by the novel and highly effective PI3Kδ and BTK inhibitors CAL-101 and PCI-32765, which reverted IgM-induced resistance toward apoptosis of CLL cells. Sphingolipids were recently shown to be crucial for mediation of apoptosis via mitochondria. Our data reveal ABT-737, a mitochondria-targeting drug, as interesting candidate partner for PI3Kδ and BTK inhibition, resulting in synergistic apoptosis, even under protection by the BCR. In summary, we identified the mode of action of novel kinase inhibitors CAL-101 and PCI-32765 by controlling the UGCG-mediated ceramide/glucosylceramide equilibrium as a downstream molecular switch of BCR signaling, also providing novel targeted treatment options beyond current chemotherapy-based regimens.

Novel X‐linked inhibitor of apoptosis inhibiting compound as sensitizer for TRAIL‐mediated apoptosis in chronic lymphocytic leukaemia with poor prognosis

Given that aggressive DNA damaging chemotherapy shows suboptimal efficacy in chronic lymphocytic leukaemia (CLL), alternative therapeutic approaches are needed. Tumour necrosis factor‐related apoptosis‐inducing ligand (TRAIL) is able to induce tumour‐specific apoptosis. However, apoptosis might be inhibited by elevated levels of X‐linked inhibitor of apoptosis (XIAP). Use of XIAP‐inhibiting compounds might sensitize primary CLL cells towards TRAIL‐mediated apoptosis. A novel small molecule, compound A (CA), an inhibitor of XIAP, was used in combination with TRAIL to induce apoptosis in primary CLL cells (n = 48). XIAP was significantly more highly expressed in primary CLL cells (n = 28) compared to healthy B cells (n = 16) (P = 0·02). Our data obtained by specific knock‐down of XIAP by siRNA identified XIAP as the key factor conferring resistance to TRAIL in CLL. Combined treatment with CA/TRAIL significantly increased apoptosis compared to untreated (P = 8·5 × 10−10), solely CA (P = 4·1 × 10−12) or TRAIL treated (P = 4·8 × 10−10) CLL cells. CA rendered 40 of 48 (83·3%) primary CLL samples susceptible to TRAIL‐mediated apoptosis. In particular, cells derived from patients with poor prognosis CLL (ZAP‐70+, IGHV unmutated, 17p‐) were highly responsive to this drug combination. Our highly‐effective XIAP inhibitor CA, in concert with TRAIL, shows potential for the treatment of CLL cases with poor prognosis and therefore warrants further clinical investigation.

Critical role of microRNAs in chronic lymphocytic leukemia: overexpression of the oncogene PLAG1 by deregulated miRNAs.

MicroRNAs (miRNAs) are small, gene encoded RNAs which are able to influence gene expression in binding to the 3′UTR of mRNAs. Compared to healthy tissues, the global expression of miRNAs in cancerous tissue is frequently down-regulated. Likewise in chronic lymphocytic leukemia (CLL), down-regulation of several miRNAs has been reported. Analysis of miRNA promoters for epigenetic modifications revealed a stronger methylation of down-regulated miRNAs in CLL. To date, several target genes affected by deregulated miRNAs have been identified that have impact on CLL pathogenesis. The best-described consequence of miRNA deregulation is for miRNA-15/16 cluster deletion, which is frequently down-regulated in a subgroup of patients with CLL carrying 13q14 deletion. So far, models for miRNA deregulation have addressed just single miRNAs. For assessment of complete miRNA deregulation, further evaluation of the results from microarray studies is needed. Previously we identified the oncogene PLAG1, whose expression is affected by various miRNAs deregulated in CLL. The involvement of miRNAs in PLAG1 expression was shown to be relevant in pleomorphic adenomas of the salivary gland, too. As PLAG1 is highly overexpressed, and its target genes appear to be deregulated in CLL, e.g. BCL-2, PLAG1 is a putative new relevant oncogene involved in the pathogenesis of CLL.

Hypoxia-induced p38 MAPK activation reduces Mcl-1 expression and facilitates sensitivity towards BH3 mimetics in chronic lymphocytic leukemia

Hypoxia-induced p38 MAPK activation reduces Mcl-1 expression and facilitates sensitivity towards BH3 mimetics in chronic lymphocytic leukemia

Comparison of the effects of two kinase inhibitors, sorafenib and dasatinib, on chronic lymphocytic leukemia cells.

Background: With sorafenib displaying the highest affinities for Flt3, VEGFR (vascular endothelial growth factor receptor) and Raf and dasatinib for Abl and Src kinases, the profiles of kinases targeted by these inhibitors differ strongly. Materials and Methods: Dose-dependent effects of the inhibitors on freshly isolated chronic lymphocytic leukemia (CLL) cells were assessed as increased phosphatidylserine exposure. Inhibition by sorafenib and dasatinib of survival and anti-apoptotic signaling in CLL cells was examined by Western blot analysis. Results: Sorafenib uniformly induced apoptosis in CLL lymphocytes with a concentration inhibiting by 50% (IC50) of 8 mM, whereas the response to dasatinib was heterogeneous with the onset of inhibition at submicromolar concentrations but with IC50 values below 25 mM in only a few samples. At the respective pharmacologically achievable plasma concentrations, the inhibitors showed more efficient apoptosis induction by sorafenib than by dasatinib and less than additive mutual enhancement in combination. Co-culture with the bone marrow stroma cell line HS-5 increased the viability of untreated CLL cells but did not protect from sorafenib-induced apoptosis. Conclusions: Sorafenib or dasatinib displayed sigmoidal or saturation-type dose-response relationships for apoptosis induction, which were uniform or highly divergent, respectively, among individual CLL samples and therefore might complement each other in their clinical potential for CLL.

In Vitro Sensitivity Testing in the Assessment of Anti-CLL Drug Candidates

Chronic lymphocytic leukemia (CLL) is characterized by the accumulation of morphologically mature, but immuno-incompetent B-lymphocytes in the bone marrow, peripheral blood, spleen and lymphoid organs. With an annual incidence of about 2-3/ 100000 in the general population (Hamblin, 2009), CLL represents a frequent leukemia type. Since CLL mostly affects persons of advanced age, the incidence among persons above 65 years reaches ten times this frequency (Eichhorst et al., 2009). Moreover CLL follows a remarkably heterogeneous course, emphasizing the need for personalized treatment approaches. Despite recent advances in CLL therapy, the disease still remains incurable and new treatment options need to be developed (Hallek et al., 2008). New insights into CLL biology have started to result in new targeted, sometimes patient group-specific treatment approaches (Pleyer et al., 2009; Zenz et al., 2010). Candidate substances for pre-clincial assays are mostly molecularly targeted drugs, i.e. either small molecules interfering with intracellular signaling (Wickremasinghe et al., 2011) or mononoclonal antibodies (Jaglowski et al., 2010). As examples we will discuss in this chapter the pre-clinical assessment of protein and lipid kinase inhibitors and of monoclonal antibodies.