Michał Podgórski

Fenestration and duplication of the vertebral artery: the anatomical and clinical points of view.

The vertebral artery (VA) acts as a foundation for the posterior circulation of the head and neck. It presents a number of anomalies that can be easily visualized thanks to modern imaging techniques, such as MR and CT angiography or color Doppler ulrasonography. Determining the appropriate terminology for those anomalies can be sometimes more challenging than their recognition. One particular challenge concerns the differentiation betweenVA fenestration and duplication. Because of the different clinical prognoses associated with those anomalies, confusion should be avoided. Knowledge of the morphological anomalies associated with the VA is important for both radiologists and head and neck surgeons, because any injury to the VA can result in a threat to the vascular supply of the brain stem, the cerebral or cerebellar hemispheres, the thalamus, cervical nerve roots and particularly the lateral medulla (Wallenbergs syndrome). This article analyses world literature concerning the issue of VA fenestration and duplication to facilitate a differential diagnosis. Clin. Anat. 26:933–943, 2013.

A proposal for classification of the superior transverse scapular ligament: variable morphology and its potential influence on suprascapular nerve entrapment

BACKGROUND The suprascapular region is the most common site of suprascapular nerve entrapment. The aim of the present study was to determine the morphologic variation of the superior transverse scapular ligament (STSL) and measure the reduction in size of the suprascapular opening. Other structures that might be potentially significant during open and arthroscopic procedures in this region are also described. MATERIALS AND METHODS The study used 86 randomized formalin-fixed human cadaveric shoulders. After dissection of the suprascapular region, the following measurements were defined and collected for every STSL: length, proximal width, distal width, and thickness at the proximal and distal ends. Measurements were also taken of the area of the suprascapular opening (aSSO) and the middle width of the suprascapular opening (mwSSO). RESULTS Three types of STSL may be distinguished: a fan-shaped type (54.6%), a band-shaped type (41.9%), and a bifid type (3.5%). Statistically significant differences between the specimens with fan-shaped and band-shaped types of STSL were observed in aSSO and mwSSO of the suprascapular opening. Anterior coracoscapular ligaments (ACSL) were present in 44 of 86 shoulders. The aSSO and mwSSO were smaller in specimens with an ACSL than in those without; however, this difference was only significant in the band-shaped type of STSL. CONCLUSION Knowledge of the morphologic variations of STSL presented in this study is important for better understanding the possible anatomic conditions that can promote suprascapular nerve entrapment and should be taken into particular consideration during surgical and arthroscopic procedures around the suprascapular notch.

Supplementation of antipsychotic treatment with sarcosine – GlyT1 inhibitor – causes changes of glutamatergic 1NMR spectroscopy parameters in the left hippocampus in patients with stable schizophrenia

Glutamatergic system, the main stimulating system of the brain, plays an important role in the pathogenesis of schizophrenia. Hippocampus, a structure crucial for memory and cognitive functions and rich in glutamatergic neurons, is a natural object of interest in studies on psychoses. Sarcosine, a glycine transporter (GlyT-1) inhibitor influences the function of NMDA receptor and glutamate-dependent transmission. The aim of the study was to assess the effects of sarcosine on metabolism parameters in the left hippocampus in patients with schizophrenia. Assessments were performed using proton nuclear magnetic resonance ((1)H NMR) spectroscopy (1.5T). Fifty patients diagnosed with schizophrenia (DSM-IV-TR), with dominant negative symptoms, in stable clinical condition and stable antipsychotics doses were treated either with sarcosine (n=25) or placebo (n=25). Spectroscopic parameters were evaluated within groups and between two groups before and after 6-month intervention. All patients were also assessed with the Positive and Negative Syndrome Scale (PANSS). In the sarcosine group, after 6-month treatment, we found significant decrease in hippocampal Glx/Cr (Glx-complex of glutamate, glutamine and GABA, Cr-creatine) and Glx/Cho (Cho-choline), while N-acetylaspartate (NAA), myo-inositol (mI), Cr and Cho parameters remained stable along the study and also did not differ significantly between both groups. This is the first study showing that a pharmacological intervention in schizophrenia, particularly augmentation of the antypsychotic treatment with sarcosine, may reverse the pathological increase in glutamatergic transmission in the hippocampus. The results confirm involvement of glutamatergic system in the pathogenesis of schizophrenia and demonstrate beneficial effects of GlyT-1 inhibitor on the metabolism in the hippocampus and symptoms of schizophrenia.

The double suprascapular foramen: unique anatomical variation and the new hypothesis of its formation

A unique anatomical variation of the suprascapular notch was discovered in one scapula from 610 analyzed by three-dimensional CT reconstruction. Two bony bridges were found, converting it into a double suprascapular foramen, in the left upper extremity of an 56-year-old Caucasian female. This variation might be a risk factor for suprascapular nerve entrapment. Suprascapular nerve running through inferior suprascapular foramen was discovered. Suprascapular vessels passed through superior suprascapular foramen (artery lay medially and vein laterally). A new hypothesis of double suprascapular foramen formation (mechanism of creation) is presented based on recent anatomical findings (e.g., the discovery in 2002 of the anterior coracoscapular ligament). Knowledge of the anatomical variations described in this study should be helpful in arthroscopic and open procedures at the suprascapular region and also confirms the safety of operative decompression for the suprascapular nerve.

Detection of transplant renal artery stenosis in the early postoperative period with analysis of parenchymal perfusion with ultrasound contrast agent.

BACKGROUND Transplant renal artery stenosis (TRAS) is a serious vascular complication due to non-specific clinical manifestations, causing serious diagnostic difficulties. Contrast-enhanced ultrasound (CE-US) can complement standard sonographic examination in evaluation of TRAS. MATERIAL AND METHODS Standard ultrasound B presentation, extended with color Doppler assessment of the flow spectrum and CE-US, was carried out in the early postoperative period in a group of 180 patients who underwent kidney transplantation. In CE-US analysis, the maximum contrast agent perfusion to the cortex and renal pyramids was evaluated. In 15 patients with sonographically diagnosed TRAS, magnetic resonance angiography and computer tomography angiography were performed to confirm the diagnosis. RESULTS In patients with TRAS, significantly longer time of contrast agent (CE) inflow was observed in comparison to patients without perfusion disturbances (3.47 s vs. 1.5 s, p<0.000 for cortex; 6.01 vs. 2.09 s for pyramids, p<0.000). The rate of CE inflow was strongly positively correlated with severity of stenosis assessed on the basis of CTA/MRA examination (R=0.97 for cortex and 0.9 for pyramids; p<0.001). Six months after kidney transplantation, patients with a history of TRAS had significantly higher serum creatinine level than recipients with normal renal artery blood flow (1.76 mg/dL vs. 1.53 mg/dl, p<0.02). Estimated GFR was decreased to 35.9 ml/min vs. 46.5 ml/min, respectively (p<0.05). CONCLUSIONS Contrast-enhanced ultrasound allows for quick and non-invasive assessment of parenchymal kidney graft perfusion. It enables confirmation of TRAS diagnosis in the early postoperative period and helps assess the degree of stenosis.

Peripheral vascular stiffness, assessed with two-dimensional speckle tracking versus the degree of coronary artery calcification, evaluated by tomographic coronary artery calcification index

Introduction Even in asymptomatic patients, the result of atherosclerosis progression is deterioration of the function and morphology of the artery wall. Two-dimensional speckle-tracking (2DST) is a sonographic technique that allows for precise evaluation of arterial wall compliance. Together with measurement of intima-media thickness (IMT), it can be applied for quick and non-invasive assessment of the progression of peripheral artery atherosclerosis. Material and methods Fifty-eight patients of mean age 61 years (SD 10.6) underwent cardiac computed tomography (CT) and subsequent ultrasonographic evaluation of the left common carotid artery. The calcium score was calculated according to the Agatston method and compared with IMT, circumferential strain variables assessed by 2DST, conventional arterial stiffness parameters (β-stiffness index and elastic modulus) and clinical data. Intra-observer and inter-observer agreement was evaluated. Results Strain variables and IMT differed significantly in patients with calcium score (CS) > 0 and CS = 0. Moreover, they correlated with CS, systolic blood pressure and age of patients. Conventional stiffness parameters were not able to identify the group of patients with calcifications present in the coronary arteries. For the 2DST technique, interclass and intraclass agreements were 84.83% and 94.42% respectively. Conclusions Circumferential strain variables assessed by 2DST and measurement of IMT can be used for evaluation of peripheral artery deterioration in patients until the 6th decade of life. These parameters reflect the development of calcifications in coronary arteries and, more importantly, can be used for a more detailed estimation of the atherosclerosis risk in patients with CS = 0.

Clinical evaluation of the shape of the suprascapular notch—an ultrasonographic and computed tomography comparative study: Application to shoulder pain syndromes

The most common site of suprascapular nerve compression and injury is the suprascapular notch. The aim of this study was to assess the sensitivity and specificity of sonography in determining the type of suprascapular notch (SSN). Thirty randomized patients (60 upper extremities) underwent USG examination of the shoulder area. The results were further compared with three‐dimensional reconstructions of the scapulae obtained through CT examination to place the SSNs within a fivefold classification. For identification of type I, the sensitivity was 73.3% and the specificity 97.8%. For identification of type III, the values was 96.9% and 85.7%, respectively. Type II was not found in USG examination. Discrimination between type IV and V was not possible. The mean distance between the line connecting the edges of the SSN and the skin was 38 mm in right‐handed patients and 34 mm in ambidextrous subjects. Ultrasonographic examination of the SSN is characterized by high specificity for type I, and high sensitivity for type III SSN. Discrimination between type IV and V of the SSN is not recommended based on sonographic evaluation. Clin. Anat. 28:774–779, 2015.

Variations of the hepatobiliary vasculature including coexistence of accessory right hepatic artery with unusually arising double cystic arteries: case report and literature review.

Familiarity with the different anatomical variations of the arterial supply of the gallbladder and liver is of great importance in all hepatobiliary surgical procedures. A complex anomaly of the hepatobiliary arterial system, which has never been reported before, was found during anatomical dissection of a 73-year-old male Caucasian cadaver. The accessory right hepatic artery (aRHA) took its origin from the gastroduodenal artery. Two cystic arteries were present, the first arising from the gastroduodenal artery (more distal than the aRHA) and the second directly from the aRHA. Potential clinical implications of this anomaly and embryology are discussed. Knowledge of the different anatomical variations of the arterial supply of the gallbladder and liver is of great importance in hepatobiliary surgical procedures.

Supplementation of Antipsychotic Treatment with the Amino Acid Sarcosine Influences Proton Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy Parameters in Left Frontal White Matter in Patients with Schizophrenia

Dysfunction of the glutamatergic system, the main stimulating system in the brain, has a major role in pathogenesis of schizophrenia. The frontal white matter (WM) is partially composed of axons from glutamatergic pyramidal neurons and glia with glutamatergic receptors. The natural amino acid sarcosine, a component of a normal diet, inhibits the glycine type 1 transporter, increasing the glycine level. Thus, it modulates glutamatergic transmission through the glutamatergic ionotropic NMDA (N-methyl-d-aspartate) receptor, which requires glycine as a co-agonist. To evaluate the concentrations of brain metabolites (NAA, N-acetylaspartate; Glx, complex of glutamate, glutamine, and γ-aminobutyric acid (GABA); mI, myo-inositol; Cr, creatine; Cho, choline) in the left frontal WM, Proton Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (1H-NMR) spectroscopy was used. Twenty-five patients randomly chosen from a group of fifty with stable schizophrenia (DSM-IV-TR) and dominant negative symptoms, who were receiving antipsychotic therapy, were administered 2 g of sarcosine daily for six months. The remaining 25 patients received placebo. Assignment was double blinded. 1H-NMR spectroscopy (1.5 T) was performed twice: before and after the intervention. NAA, Glx and mI were evaluated as Cr and Cho ratios. All patients were also assessed twice with the Positive and Negative Syndrome Scale (PANSS). Results were compared between groups and in two time points in each group. The sarcosine group demonstrated a significant decrease in WM Glx/Cr and Glx/Cho ratios compared to controls after six months of therapy. In the experimental group, the final NAA/Cr ratio significantly increased and Glx/Cr ratio significantly decreased compared to baseline values. Improvement in the PANSS scores was significant only in the sarcosine group. In patients with schizophrenia, sarcosine augmentation can reverse the negative effect of glutamatergic system overstimulation, with a simultaneous beneficial increase of NAA/Cr ratio in the WM of the left frontal lobe. Our results further support the glutamatergic hypothesis of schizophrenia.

Adding Sarcosine to Antipsychotic Treatment in Patients with Stable Schizophrenia Changes the Concentrations of Neuronal and Glial Metabolites in the Left Dorsolateral Prefrontal Cortex.

The glutamatergic system is a key point in pathogenesis of schizophrenia. Sarcosine (N-methylglycine) is an exogenous amino acid that acts as a glycine transporter inhibitor. It modulates glutamatergic transmission by increasing glycine concentration around NMDA (N-methyl-d-aspartate) receptors. In patients with schizophrenia, the function of the glutamatergic system in the prefrontal cortex is impaired, which may promote negative and cognitive symptoms. Proton nuclear magnetic resonance (1H-NMR) spectroscopy is a non-invasive imaging method enabling the evaluation of brain metabolite concentration, which can be applied to assess pharmacologically induced changes. The aim of the study was to evaluate the influence of a six-month course of sarcosine therapy on the concentration of metabolites (NAA, N-acetylaspartate; Glx, complex of glutamate, glutamine and γ-aminobutyric acid (GABA); mI, myo-inositol; Cr, creatine; Cho, choline) in the left dorso-lateral prefrontal cortex (DLPFC) in patients with stable schizophrenia. Fifty patients with schizophrenia, treated with constant antipsychotics doses, in stable clinical condition were randomly assigned to administration of sarcosine (25 patients) or placebo (25 patients) for six months. Metabolite concentrations in DLPFC were assessed with 1.5 Tesla 1H-NMR spectroscopy. Clinical symptoms were evaluated with the Positive and Negative Syndrome Scale (PANSS). The first spectroscopy revealed no differences in metabolite concentrations between groups. After six months, NAA/Cho, mI/Cr and mI/Cho ratios in the left DLPFC were significantly higher in the sarcosine than the placebo group. In the sarcosine group, NAA/Cr, NAA/Cho, mI/Cr, mI/Cho ratios also significantly increased compared to baseline values. In the placebo group, only the NAA/Cr ratio increased. The addition of sarcosine to antipsychotic therapy for six months increased markers of neurons viability (NAA) and neurogilal activity (mI) with simultaneous improvement of clinical symptoms. Sarcosine, two grams administered daily, seems to be an effective adjuvant in the pharmacotherapy of schizophrenia.