Michelle E. Swearingen

Influence of scattering, atmospheric refraction, and ground effect on sound propagation through a pine forest

Sound propagation through a forest is affected by the microclimate in the canopy, scattering by trunks and stems, and ground reflection. Each of these effects is such a strong contributor to the attenuation of sound that mutual interactions between the phenomena could become important. A sound propagation model for use in a forest has been developed that incorporates scattering from trunks and branches and atmospheric refraction by modifying the effective wave number in the Greens function parabolic equation model. The ground effect for a hard-backed pine straw layer is approximated as a local reaction impedance condition. Comparisons to experimental data are made for frequencies up to 4,200 Hz. Cumulative influences of the separate phenomena are examined. The method developed in this paper is compared to previously published methods. The overall comparison with spectral transmission data is good, suggesting that the model captures the necessary details.

Blast noise characteristics as a function of distance for temperate and desert climates

Variability in received sound levels were investigated at distances ranging from 4 m to 16 km from a typical blast source in two locations with different climates and terrain. Four experiments were conducted, two in a temperate climate with a hilly terrain and two in a desert climate with a flat terrain, under a variety of meteorological conditions. Sound levels were recorded in three different directions around the source during the summer and winter seasons in each location. Testing occurred over the course of several days for each experiment during all 24 h of the day, and meteorological data were gathered throughout each experiment. The peak levels (L(Pk)), C-weighted sound exposure levels (CSEL), and spectral characteristics of the received sound pressure levels were analyzed. The results show high variability in L(Pk) and CSEL at distances beyond 2 km from the source for each experiment, which was not clearly explained by the time of day the blasts occurred. Also, as expected, higher frequency energy is attenuated more drastically than the lower frequency energy as the distance from the source increases. These data serve as a reference for long-distance blast sound propagation.

Influence of a forest edge on acoustical propagation: Experimental results

Acoustic propagation through a forest edge can produce complicated pressure time histories because of scattering from the trees and changes in the microclimate and ground parameters of the two regions. To better understand these effects, a field experiment was conducted to measure low-frequency acoustic pulses propagating in an open field, a forest, and passing through a forest edge in both directions. Waveforms measured in the open field were simple impulses with very low scattering, whereas waveforms at the edge and within the forest had stronger reverberations after the direct arrival. The direct wave pulse shapes increased in duration in accordance with the path length in the forest, which had an effective flow resistivity 12 to 13 that of the grassy open field. The measurements exhibit different rates of attenuation in the two regions, with relatively lower attenuation in the open field than higher rates in the forest. Decay of SEL transmitted into the forest was 4 dB more per tenfold distance than for outbound transmission. Stronger attenuation in the 1-2 kHz range occurs when propagating into the forest. While the measured meteorological profiles revealed three distinct microclimates, meteorological effects are not sufficient to explain the apparent non-reciprocal propagation.

Low frequency acoustic pulse propagation in temperate forests

Measurements of acoustic pulse propagation for a 30-m path were conducted in an open field and in seven different forest stands in the northeastern United States consisting of deciduous, evergreen, or mixed tree species. The waveforms recorded in forest generally show the pulse elongation characteristic of propagation over a highly porous ground surface, with high frequency scattered arrivals superimposed on the basic waveform shape. Waveform analysis conducted to determine ground properties resulted in acoustically determined layer thicknesses of 4-8 cm in summer, within 2 cm of the directly measured thickness of the litter layers. In winter the acoustic thicknesses correlated with the site-specific snow cover depths. Effective flow resistivity values of 50-88 kN s m(-4) were derived for the forest sites in summer, while lower values typical for snow were found in winter. Reverberation times (T60) were typically around 2 s, but two stands (deciduous and pruned spruce planted on a square grid) had lower values of about 1.2 s. One site with a very rough ground surface had very low summer flow resistivity value and also had the longest reverberation time of about 3 s. These measurements can provide parameters useful for theoretical predictions of acoustic propagation within forests.

Use of a porous material description of forests in infrasonic propagation algorithms.

Infrasound can propagate very long distances and remain at measurable levels. As a result infrasound sensing is used for remote monitoring in many applications. At local ranges, on the order of 10 km, the influence of the presence or absence of forests on the propagation of infrasonic signals is considered. Because the wavelengths of interest are much larger than the scale of individual components, the forest is modeled as a porous material. This approximation is developed starting with the relaxation model of porous materials. This representation is then incorporated into a Crank-Nicholson method parabolic equation solver to determine the relative impacts of the physical parameters of a forest (trunk size and basal area), the presence of gaps/trees in otherwise continuous forest/open terrain, and the effects of meteorology coupled with the porous layer. Finally, the simulations are compared to experimental data from a 10.9 kg blast propagated 14.5 km. Comparison to the experimental data shows that appropriate inclusion of a forest layer along the propagation path provides a closer fit to the data than solely changing the ground type across the frequency range from 1 to 30 Hz.

Sound propagation classes for long‐range assessment algorithms.

Preparing noise assessments for military training activities is a significant challenge due to the short duration of the individual signals and the lack of highly detailed atmospheric conditions, due to either an absence of necessary meteorological sensors or a need to perform the assessment without prior atmospheric knowledge. To overcome these difficulties, a set of sound propagation classes has been developed. These classes narrowly define the atmospheric and ground properties and have associated mean and variance as a function of distance. This talk will provide a description of these classes and examples of how they are used.

Variation in measured sound level as a function of propagation environment and distance

The propagation environment exerts a large influence on the range of received levels of impulsive events. This talk focuses on the variation in excess attenuation over durations of less than approximately 15 minutes. Data are presented for greatly different measurement distances (25 m to 7 km) and propagation environments (sparse vegetation to forested), illustrating the effects of distance and terrain cover on sounds from a propane cannon and an artillery source. Over sparse vegetation 7 km from an artillery source, the received CSEL varied 11 dB within a 12‐minute duration. In measurements up to approximately 300 m from the source, variation in received level (both peak and SEL) was less than 1 dB within the forest, and much more in the open. The control of the forest canopy on the micrometeorology seems to explain the effect.

High energy large scale blast sound propagation experiments

Atmospheric conditions greatly affect the propagation of the sound. Currently, little information exists regarding the amount of variation in level and spectra of blast noise that is caused by changing meteorological conditions along the propagation path. Available meteorological models accurately predict vertical sound speed profiles only up to the top of the boundary layer. For long-range propagation, this is inadequate. Vertical sound speed profile data and resulting propagation effects will help to better explain the effects of atmospheric refraction in sound propagation. This report detailed the procedures and equipment used to carry out a series of blast noise experiments at White Sands Missile Range, NM and Fort Leonard Wood, MO from 2007 to 2009. The data provided by this large-scale experiment comprise a definitive dataset for the effects of a wide range of meteorological conditions on long-range high-energy blast sound propagation in climate types similar to the majority of continental United States (CONUS) military installations (arid desert and temperate vegetated). The experiment also captured a comprehensive set of meteorological measurements over the duration of the experiments. DISCLAIMER: The contents of this report are not to be used for advertising, publication, or promotional purposes. Citation of trade names does not constitute an official endorsement or approval of the use of such commercial products. All product names and trademarks cited are the property of their respective owners. The findings of this report are not to be construed as an official Department of the Army position unless so designated by other authorized documents. DESTROY THIS REPORT WHEN NO LONGER NEEDED. DO NOT RETURN IT TO THE ORIGINATOR.

Determining essential scales and associated uncertainties for regional atmospheric infrasound propagation by incorporating three-dimensional weather model forecasts

Understanding infrasound propagation is important for geophysical and military applications. Infrasound signatures can be detected from larger sources such as nuclear detonations and from smaller sources such as bridges, dams, and buildings. Infrastructure sources produce signals of lower amplitude, leading to more regional (up to 150 km) propagation. However, current methods for calculating regional infrasound propagation involve assumptions about the atmosphere, such as horizontal homogeneity, that deviate from more realistic environmental conditions and decrease the accuracy of the infrasound predictions. To remedy this issue, we have interfaced three-dimensional forecasts from the Weather Research and Forecasting (WRF) meteorological model with range-dependent parabolic equation propagation models. To test the improvement of infrasound propagation predictions with more realistic weather data, we conducted sensitivity studies with different propagation ranges and horizontal resolutions and compared the...

Modeling of signal propagation and sensor performance for infrasound and blast noise

This paper describes a comprehensive modeling approach for infrasonic (sub-audible acoustic) signals, which starts with an accurate representation of the source spectrum and directivity, propagates the signals through the environment, and senses and processes the signals at the receiver. The calculations are implemented within EASEE (Environmental Awareness for Sensor and Emitter Employment), which is a general software framework for modeling the impacts of terrain and weather on target signatures and the performance of a diverse range of battlefield sensing systems, including acoustic, seismic, RF, visible, and infrared. At each stage in the modeling process, the signals are described by realistic statistical distributions. Sensor performance is quantified using statistical metrics such as probability of detection and target location error. To extend EASEE for infrasonic calculations, new feature sets were created including standard octaves and one-third octaves. A library of gunfire and blast noise spectra and directivity functions was added from ERDC’s BNOISE (Blast Noise) and SARNAM (Small Arms Range Noise Assessment Model) software. Infrasonic propagation modeling is supported by extension of several existing propagation algorithms, including a basic ground impedance model, and the Green’s function parabolic equation (GFPE), which provides accurate numerical solutions for wave propagation in a refractive atmosphere. The BNOISE propagation algorithm, which is based on tables generated by a fast-field program (FFP), was also added. Finally, an extensive library of transfer functions for microphones operating in the infrasonic range were added, which interface to EASEE’s sensor performance algorithms. Example calculations illustrate terrain and atmospheric impacts on infrasonic signal propagation and the directivity characteristics of blast noise.