Michelle Floris-Moore

Decreased bone mineral density and increased fracture risk in aging men with or at risk for HIV infection.

Background:Osteopenia has been described in HIV-infected persons, but most studies have not focused on aging men, have not included an HIV-negative comparison group with similar risks to those of the HIV-infected men, or lacked data on fracture rates. Methods:We analyzed bone mineral density (BMD) and incident fractures in 559 men who were ≥ 49 years old with or at-risk for HIV, including 328 with and 231 without HIV infection. Results:Median age was 55 years, 56% were black and 89% had used illicit drugs. In unadjusted analysis, BMD was lower in HIV-infected compared with HIV-uninfected men at the femoral neck (0.97 ± 0.14 versus 1.00 ± 0.15 g/cm2; P < 0.05) and lumbar spine (1.17 ± 0.20 versus 1.20 ± 0.21 g/cm2; P = 0.06); both differences were significant (P < 0.05) after adjusting for age, weight, race, testosterone level, and prednisone and illicit drug use. Non-black race and body weight were independently associated with BMD at both measurement sites and methadone therapy was independently associated with spine BMD. Among HIV-infected men, 87% had taken antiretrovirals and 74% had taken protease inhibitors, but their use was not associated with BMD. Among men who had at least one subsequent study visit (94%), incident fracture rates per 100 person-years differed among men with normal BMD, osteopenia and osteoporosis (1.4 versus 3.6 versus 6.5; P < 0.01). A 38% increase in fracture rate among HIV-infected men was not statistically significant. Conclusions:HIV infection is independently associated with modestly reduced BMD in aging men, and decreased BMD is associated with increased fracture risk.

HIV infection and bone mineral density in middle-aged women

BACKGROUND Osteopenia is prevalent in persons with human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infection and is part of a normal sequence of aging in women. Most studies of bone mineral density (BMD) and HIV infection have focused on men or have lacked a comparison group of individuals without HIV infection with similar behavioral risk factors. METHODS We analyzed BMD in 495 middle-aged women (defined as women > or =40 years of age); 263 women had HIV infection, and 232 women were HIV-negative with behavioral risk factors similar to those of the HIV-positive group. RESULTS The median age of the women in the study was 44 years, 54% were black, and 92% had used illicit drugs. Femoral neck BMD and lumbar spine BMD were reduced in women with HIV infection, compared with women without HIV infection (femoral neck BMD, 1.01+/-0.13 g/cm2 vs. 1.05+/-0.13 g/cm2; P=.001; lumbar spine BMD, 1.21+/-0.17 g/cm2 vs. 1.24+/-0.17 g/cm2; P=.04). In addition to HIV infection, other factors independently associated with lower BMD in both sites were being older, not being black, and having a low body weight. In race-stratified multivariate analyses, HIV infection was associated with BMD only in non-black women. Among HIV-positive women, 84% had taken antiretrovirals, and 62% had taken protease inhibitors, but their use was not associated with BMD. Methadone treatment was also independently associated with reduced lumbar spine BMD. CONCLUSION Middle-aged women with HIV infection have reduced BMD, compared with women at similar risk for HIV infection, independent of antiretroviral use. Among HIV-positive women, those who are not black, who are underweight, and who use opiates may be at particular risk. Although the prevalence of reduced BMD in this cohort was higher among women with HIV infection than among those without (27% vs. 19%), the overall prevalence of reduced BMD was low, compared with national estimates and with previous studies involving HIV-positive women and men.

HIV infection, drug use, and onset of natural menopause.

OBJECTIVE To study the relationship of HIV infection and drug use with the onset of natural menopause. METHODS Our analyses used the World Health Organizations definition of menopause (i.e., the date of the last menstrual period is confirmed after 12 months of amenorrhea) and baseline data from a prospective study. Semiannual interviews were conducted. Levels of HIV antibody and CD4+ cell counts were obtained. Menopause was identified at baseline or during 12 months of follow-up. Women ingesting reproductive hormones were excluded. Logistic regression analyses were used to assess factors associated with menopause. RESULTS Of 571 women, 53% were HIV infected, and 52% had used heroin or cocaine in the previous 5 years. The median age was 43 years (interquartile range [IQR], 40-46 years); 48.9% of the women were black, 40.4% were Hispanic, and 10.7% were white. The median body mass index was 29.1 kg/m2, and 90.4% of participants were current or former cigarette smokers. Menopause was identified in 102 women: 62 HIV-infected women (median age, 46 years; interquartile range [IQR], 39-49 years) and 40 uninfected women (median age, 47 years; IQR, 44.5-48 years). Factors independently associated with menopause included HIV infection (adjusted odds ratio [OR], 1.73; 95% confidence interval [CI], 1.075-2.795), drug use (adjusted OR, 2.633; 95% CI, 1.610-4.308), and physical activity (adjusted OR, 0.895; 95% CI, 0.844-0.950). Among HIV-infected women, factors independently associated with menopause included CD4+ cell counts of >500 cells/mm3 (adjusted OR, 0.191; 95% CI, 0.076-0.4848) and 200-500 cells/mm3 (adjusted OR, 0.356; 95% CI, 0.147-0.813). CONCLUSION Our study shows that HIV infection and immunosuppression are associated with an earlier age at the onset of menopause. Whether early onset of menopause in HIV-infected women increases their risk of osteoporosis and heart disease requires further study.

Ending the Epidemic of Heterosexual HIV Transmission Among African Americans

This article examines factors responsible for the stark racial disparities in HIV infection in the U.S. and the now concentrated epidemic among African Americans. Sexual network patterns characterized by concurrency and mixing among different subpopulations, together with high rates of other sexually transmitted infections, facilitate dissemination of HIV among African Americans. The social and economic environment in which many African Americans live shapes sexual network patterns and increases personal infection risk almost independently of personal behavior. The African-American HIV epidemic constitutes a national crisis whose successful resolution will require modifying the social and economic systems, structures, and processes that facilitate HIV transmission in this population.

Disorders of Glucose Metabolism among HIV-Infected Women

BACKGROUND Abnormal glucose metabolism in HIV-infected patients has largely been attributed to the use of protease inhibitors. However, most studies of glucose metabolism in HIV-infected patients have focused on men or have lacked appropriate control groups. METHODS We assessed the factors associated with previously diagnosed diabetes among 620 middle-aged women with or at risk for HIV infection. For a subset of 221 women without previously diagnosed diabetes, we performed an oral glucose tolerance test (OGTT) to measure glucose and insulin levels, and we assessed factors associated with abnormal glucose tolerance, insulin resistance, and insulin secretion. RESULTS Thirteen percent of the women in the present study had previously diagnosed diabetes. Among women without previously diagnosed diabetes who underwent an OGTT, 6% had previously undiagnosed diabetes, and 12% had impaired glucose tolerance (IGT). According to multivariate analysis, factors that were associated with previously diagnosed diabetes included current methadone treatment, body mass index of > or =25, family history of diabetes, and physical inactivity. Factors that were independently associated with an abnormal result of an OGTT (i.e., a result consistent with IGT or diabetes) included age > or =50 years, family history of diabetes, physical inactivity, and a high number of pack-years of smoking. Factors independently associated with insulin resistance included waist circumference, Hispanic ethnicity, physical inactivity, and, among HIV-infected women, use of HAART that did not include protease inhibitors. Factors associated with lower levels of insulin secretion included current opiate use (i.e., methadone or heroin) and older age. CONCLUSIONS Abnormal glucose metabolism is highly prevalent among middle-aged women with or at risk for HIV infection, particularly women who use opiates. Screening for diabetes in the HIV primary care setting should occur for women who have classic risk factors for diabetes, rather than solely for women who are taking PIs. Interventions that target modifiable risk factors, including obesity and physical inactivity, are also warranted.

Menopause symptoms in HIV-infected and drug-using women.

Objective:To examine the association of HIV infection, drug use, and psychosocial stressors with type and frequency of menopause symptoms. Design:In a cross-sectional study, HIV-infected and HIV-uninfected midlife women underwent standardized interviews on menopause status and symptoms, demographic characteristics, depressive symptoms, negative life events, and substance abuse. Body mass index (BMI), HIV serostatus, and CD4 count were measured. Associations between study variables and menopause symptoms were assessed using generalized estimating equations. Results:Of 536 women not on hormone therapy, 48% were black, 42% were Hispanic, 54% were HIV positive, and 30% recently had used illicit drugs. The mean age was 45 ± 5 years; 48% of the women were identified as premenopausal, and 37% were perimenopausal. Psychological symptoms were most prevalent (89%), followed by arthralgias (63%) and vasomotor symptoms (61%). Perimenopausal women reported significantly more menopause symptoms than premenopausal women (ORadj 1.34, 95% CI, 1.09-1.65). HIV-infected women were more likely to report menopause symptoms than uninfected women (ORadj 1.24, 95% CI, 1.02-1.51). Among HIV-infected women not on highly active antiretroviral therapy, symptoms decreased as the CD4 count declined. Increased menopause symptoms were significantly associated with depressive symptoms (ie, Center for Epidemiologic Studies Depression scale score > 23, ORadj1.82, 95% CI, 1.46-2.28), and with experiencing more than three negative life events (ORadj 2.08, 95% CI, 1.54-2.81). Increasing BMI (per kg/m2) was also associated with more menopause symptoms (ORadj 1.03, 95% CI, 1.02-1.05). Conclusion:HIV-infected women reported more menopause symptoms than HIV-uninfected women, but symptoms were less frequent in women with more advanced HIV disease. Depressive symptoms and negative life events were also highly associated with symptoms. Further study of menopause symptoms and HIV-related factors is warranted. Mental health interventions may also have a role in ameliorating menopause symptoms.

Mortality in an Urban Cohort of HIV-Infected and At-Risk Drug Users in the Era of Highly Active Antiretroviral Therapy

BACKGROUND Mortality trends among drug users in the era of highly active antiretroviral therapy (HAART) remain unclear. METHODS We examined mortality rates, causes of death, and predictors of mortality in 398 human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)-infected and 656 at-risk drug users for the period of 1996-2001. National death index reports were used to confirm deaths, and causes of death were derived from medical records. Cox proportional hazards models were used to determine factors associated with mortality. RESULTS During 1996-2001, mortality rates in HIV-infected and HIV-uninfected participants were 7.3 and 1.5 deaths per 100 person-years, respectively (P<.001). The mean age at the time of death was 43.6 years for HIV-infected subjects and 47.7 years in HIV-uninfected subjects (P<.001). For 398 HIV-infected participants who were observed for 1443 person-years, death rates decreased from 11.4 to 5.4 deaths per 100 person-years over the 6-year period (P=.04). Among all participants, causes of death were as follows: HIV/AIDS, 27% of subjects; substance abuse, 31%; bacterial infection, 25%; other medical illness, 14%; and violence, 3%. Persons who initiated HAART at a CD4+ lymphocyte count of 201-350 cells/mm3 experienced improved survival, compared with those who initiated it at a CD4+ lymphocyte count of < or =200 cells/mm3 (P=.01). In a multivariate Cox model of HIV-infected subjects, factors independently associated with mortality included receipt of HAART (adjusted hazard ratio [HR(adj)], 0.44; 95% confidence interval [CI], 0.28-0.68) and CD4+ lymphocyte count of < or =200 cells/mm3 (HR(adj), 4.23; 95% CI, 2.24-7.60). Use of methadone or illicit drugs did not predict mortality. CONCLUSIONS To further reduce mortality among drug users, interventions aimed at improving HAART use are warranted. Preventive health and timely management of treatable conditions, such as bacterial infections, also needs emphasis.

Gender and Hospitalization Patterns Among HIV-Infected Drug Users Before and After the Availability of Highly Active Antiretroviral Therapy

Abstract: We examined highly active antiretroviral therapy (HAART) era and pre‐HAART era hospitalization rates among 604 HIV‐infected drug users in a prospective study in Bronx, New York. Medical history and risk behaviors were elicited by semiannual interviews. Standardized medical record review abstracted discharge diagnoses for all hospitalizations. Hospitalization rates from January 1997 to December 2000 were compared with rates from January 1992 to December 1996. The rate of hospitalizations per 100 patient‐years in the HAART era was 49.3 compared with 44.1 in the pre‐HAART era (P = 0.13). Among women, the rate was significantly higher in the HAART era than in the pre‐HAART era (68.1 vs. 49.4 hospitalizations per 100 patient‐years, respectively; P = 0.01). In the second era, HAART users had lower rates than those who did not use HAART (37.2 vs. 83.4 hospitalizations per 100 patient‐years, respectively; P < 0.001) for both HIV‐associated and non‐HIV‐associated illnesses. Multivariate analysis revealed that in the HAART era, female gender (relative risk ratio = 1.72, P = 0.03) and not using HAART (relative risk ratio = 1.82, P = 0.02) independently predicted increased hospitalization risk. In the pre‐HAART era, women were at independently higher risk of hospitalization (relative risk ratio = 1.36, P = 0.05). Among HIV‐infected drug users, those who use HAART have a decreased risk of hospitalization; those who do not use HAART remain at high risk of continuing morbidity from both HIV‐related and non‐HIV‐related illness and have high hospitalization rates.

Abnormal glucose metabolism among older men with or at risk of HIV infection

To determine factors associated with diabetes, insulin resistance, and abnormal glucose tolerance in older men with or at risk of HIV infection.

Hepatitis C virus infection is associated with insulin resistance among older adults with or at risk of HIV infection

Objectives:To determine the associations of hepatitis C virus (HCV) infection with insulin resistance and abnormal glucose tolerance in a cohort of older adults with or at risk of HIV infection. Design:A cross-sectional study of 267 HIV-infected and 179 at-risk-uninfected adults without a history of diabetes mellitus. Methods:HCV antibody assays and RNA levels were performed to assess HCV status. Antiretroviral use, family history of diabetes, sedentary behavior, and sociodemographic data were obtained using standardized interviews. Fasting insulin levels and oral glucose tolerance tests were performed to assess two outcomes, the homeostasis model assessment of insulin resistance and abnormal glucose tolerance [impaired glucose tolerance (IGT) or diabetes]. Results:Of 446 participants, 265 (59%) were HCV seropositive; of these, 199 (75%) had detectable HCV-RNA levels. Insulin resistance was greater among HCV-seropositive compared with seronegative participants, adjusting for body mass index, Hispanic ethnicity, age greater than 55 years, sedentary behavior (watching television > 4 h/day), HIV status, HAART, and protease inhibitor (PI) use. Ninety-eight participants (22%) had abnormal glucose tolerance (69 with IGT and 29 with diabetes). Among HIV-infected participants, 25% were on non-PI HAART and 52% were on PI HAART, but HAART and PI use were not associated with insulin resistance or abnormal glucose tolerance. Among obese participants, abnormal glucose tolerance was more common in HCV-seropositive than seronegative individuals, whereas among non-obese participants there was no association. Conclusion:The potential impact of HCV co-infection and obesity on glucose metabolism should be recognized in clinical care, and addressed in future research studies of HIV-infected individuals.