Michelle Yeh

Display Signaling in Augmented Reality: Effects of Cue Reliability and Image Realism on Attention Allocation and Trust Calibration:

This experiment seeks to examine the relationships among three advanced technology features (presentation of target cuing, reliability of target cuing, and level of image reality and the attention and trust given to that information). The participants were 16 military personnel who piloted an unmanned air vehicle and searched for targets camouflaged in terrain, which was presented at two levels of image realism. Cuing was available for some targets, and the reliability of this information was manipulated at two levels (100% and 75%). The results showed that the presence of cuing aided target detection for expected targets but drew attention away from the presence of unexpected targets. Cuing benefits and attentional tunneling were both reduced when cuing became less reliable. Increasing image realism was compelling but increased reliance on the cuing information when those data were reliable. Potential applications include a cost-benefit analysis of how trust modulates attention in the use of automated target recognition systems and the extent to which increased realism may influence this trust.

Attentional filtering in the design of electronic map displays: a comparison of color coding, intensity coding, and decluttering techniques.

In a series of experiments color coding, intensity coding, and decluttering were compared in order to assess their potential benefits for accessing information from electronic map displays. Participants viewed electronic battlefield maps containing 5 classes of information discriminable by color or intensity, or, in the decluttering condition, displayed or removed entirely by a key press. Participants were asked questions requiring them to focus on objects within a class (objects presented at the same color or intensity) or to integrate data between objects in different classes (objects presented at different colors and intensities). The results suggested that the benefits of color and intensity coding appear to be in segregating the visual field rather than calling attention to the objects presented at a certain color or intensity. Interactivity proved to be a disadvantage; the time cost of information retrieval outweighed the time benefits of presenting less information on the display or even allowing map users to customize their displays. Potential applications of this research include a cost-benefit analysis for the use of 3 attentional filtering techniques and an attempt to quantitatively measure map complexity.

Head Up versus Head Down: The Costs of Imprecision, Unreliability, and Visual Clutter on Cue Effectiveness for Display Signaling

We conducted 2 experiments to investigate the clutter-scan trade-off between the cost of increasing clutter by overlaying complex information onto the forward field of view using a helmet-mounted display (HMD) and the cost of scanning when presenting this information on a handheld display. In the first experiment, this tradeoff was examined in terms of the spatial accuracy of target cuing data in a relatively sparse display; in the second, the spatial accuracy of the cue was varied more radically in an information-rich display. Participants were asked to detect and identify targets hidden in the far domain while performing a monitoring task in the near domain using either an HMD or a handheld display. The results revealed that on a sparse display, the reduced scanning from the HMD presentation of cuing outweighed the costs of clutter for cued targets, regardless of cue precision, but no benefit was found for uncued targets. When the HMD displayed task-irrelevant information, however, target detection was hindered by the extraneous clutter in the forward field of view relative to the handheld display condition, and this cost of clutter increased as the amount of data that needed to be inspected increased. Potential applications of this research include the development of design considerations for head-up displays for aviation and military applications.

Target Cuing in Visual Search: The Effects of Conformality and Display Location on the Allocation of Visual Attention

Two experiments were performed to examine how frame of reference (world referenced vs. screen-referenced) and target expectancy can modulate the effects of target cuing in directing attention for see-through helmet-mounted displays (HMDs). In the first experiment, the degree of world referencing was varied by the spatial accuracy of the cue; in the second, the degree of world referencing was varied more radically between a world-referenced HMD and a hand-held display. Participants were asked to detect, identify, and give azimuth information for targets hidden in terrain presented in the far domain (i.e., the world) while performing a monitoring task in the near domain (i.e., the display). The results of both experiments revealed a cost-benefit trade-off for cuing such that the presence of cuing aided the target detection task for expected targets but drew attention away from the presence of unexpected targets in the environment. Analyses support the observation that this effect can be mediated by the display: The world-referenced display reduced the cost of cognitive tunneling relative to the screen-referenced display in Experiment 1; this cost was further reduced in Experiment 2 when participants were using a hand-held display. Potential applications of this research include important design guidelines and specifications for automated target recognition systems as well as any terrain-and-targeting display system in which superimposed symbology is included, specifically in assessing the costs and benefits of attentional cuing and the means by which this information is displayed.

Frame of Reference Effects on Scientific Visualization Subtasks

Performance measures for 3 frames of reference (full exocentric, full egocentric, and tethered) were contrasted across 4 different scientific visualization subtasks: search, travel, local judgment support, and global judgment support. Participants were instructed to locate and follow a designated path through 15 simple virtual environments and to answer simple questions about that environment. Each participant completed 5 trials in every frame of reference condition (exocentric, egocentric, and tethered). The results revealed that frames of reference that utilize egocentric or tethered viewpoints support better travel performance, especially when nearing the target. However, the exocentric frame of reference supported better performance in the search subtasks and in the local and global judgment subtasks. Actual or potential applications of this research include proper uses of virtual reality to support certain scientific visualization subtasks.

Data Base Overlay in Electronic Map Design: Testing a Computational Model

In two experiments, participants answered questions about two geographical-spatial data bases, displayed in different formats, and at different levels of clutter. One experiment examined aviation information (traffic weather, terrain), and the other examined information pertaining to a soldiers battlefield (troops, roads, rivers, and terrain). Data bases were presented in five contrasting formats: overlay, spatially separated at small resolution, spatially separated at large resolution, highlighted and with an interactive decluttering mode. Performance was evaluated in the context of the different information processing mechanisms that were challenged or supported by the different formats. The data revealed a linear effect of clutter on RT, a general benefit for highlighting, and a cost for interactive displays.

Effects of Cue Reliability, Realism, and Interactivity on Biases of Attention and Trust in Augmented Reality

This experiment seeks to examine the relationship between three advanced technology features (presentation of target cueing – and the reliability of that data, image reality, and interactivity) and the attention and trust provided to that information. Sixteen military personnel were asked to detect targets camouflaged in terrain, presented at two levels of scene detail, while performing a terrain association task. Half the subjects actively navigated through the terrain; the other half passively viewed the control path of an active navigator. Cueing was presented for some of the targets, and the reliability of this information was manipulated at two levels (100% and 75%). The results revealed that the presence of cueing aided the target detection task for expected targets but drew attention away from the presence of unexpected targets in the environment. This attentional tunneling was mediated by cue reliability; unexpected targets, presented in conjunction with a cued object, were detected more often when cueing was only partially reliable. Neither image reality nor interactivity directly influenced trust in the display.

Head-Up vs. Head-Down: Effects of Precision on Cue Effectiveness and Display Signaling

Two experiments were conducted to investigate the attentional effects in the presentation of cueing symbology with the use of a helmet-mounted display (HMD) relative to a handheld display, and how reduced cue precision (experiment 1) and increased clutter (experiment 2) might modulate these effects. Participants were asked to detect, identify, and give azimuth information for targets hidden in terrain presented in the far domain (i.e., the world) while performing a monitoring task in the near domain (i.e., the display) using either a HMD or hand-held display. The results revealed overall cueing benefits in target detection performance, with slight decrements when cue imprecision was greater than 7.5°. More importantly, undertrust of the cueing data, induced by decreased precision, widened attentional breadth on trials after the automation unexpectedly failed.

Conformality and Target Cueing: Presentation of Symbology in Augmented Reality

We conducted a study to examine the issues of frame of reference (world-referenced vs. screen-referenced), target expectancy, target cueing, and viewing condition (i.e., one eye versus two) in the design of see-through helmet mounted displays (HMD) in order to determine their effects on tasks of focused and divided attention. Sixteen subjects (8 civilian, 8 military) were asked to detect, identify, and give azimuth information for targets hidden in terrain presented in the far domain (i.e., the world) while performing a monitoring task in the near domain (i.e., the display). The results showed that the presence of cueing aided the target detection task for expected targets but drew attention away from the presence of unexpected targets in the environment. However, analyses support the observation that this effect can be mediated by the use of world-referenced symbology. Displaying symbology to two eyes produced a very slight benefit for target detection when the target was cued.

Scientific Visualization Performance in Virtual Environments

Three frames of reference (full exocentric, full egocentric and tethered) were contrasted in three experiments to measure performance of four different scientific visualization subtasks: search, travel, local judgment support and global judgment support. Participants were instructed to locate and follow a designated path through simple virtual environments and to answer simple questions about that environment. Each subject completed 5 trials in every frame of reference condition (exocentric, egocentric and tethered) with the subjects first trial serving as a practice trial. The results revealed that frames of reference that utilize egocentric or tethered viewpoints support better travel performance, especially when nearing the target. However the exocentric frame of reference supported better performance in the search subtasks and the local and global judgment subtasks.