Miguel A. Battini

Across the southern Andes on fin: glacial refugia, drainage reversals and a secondary contact zone revealed by the phylogeographical signal of Galaxias platei in Patagonia

We employed DNA sequence variation at two mitochondrial (control region, COI) regions from 212 individuals of Galaxias platei (Pisces, Galaxiidae) collected throughout Patagonia (25 lakes/rivers) to examine how Andean orogeny and the climatic cycles throughout the Quaternary affected the genetic diversity and phylogeography of this species. Phylogenetic analyses revealed four deep genealogical lineages which likely represent the initial division of G. platei into eastern and western lineages by Andean uplift, followed by further subdivision of each lineage into separate glacial refugia by repeated Pleistocene glacial cycles. West of the Andes, refugia were likely restricted to the northern region of Patagonia with small relicts in the south, whereas eastern refugia appear to have been much larger and widespread, consisting of separate northern and southern regions that collectively spanned most of Argentinean Patagonia. The retreat of glacial ice following the last glacial maximum allowed re‐colonization of central Chile from nonlocal refugia from the north and east, representing a region of secondary contact between all four glacial lineages. Northwestern glacial relicts likely followed pro‐glacial lakes into central Chilean Patagonia, whereas catastrophic changes in drainage direction (Atlantic → Pacific) for several eastern palaeolakes were the likely avenues for invasions from the east. These mechanisms, combined with evidence for recent, rapid and widespread population growth could explain the extensive contemporary distribution of G. platei throughout Patagonia.

Spatial and temporal distribution of landlocked Galaxias maculatus and Galaxias platei (Pisces: Galaxiidae) in a lake in the South American Andes

Abstract Galaxiids are present in many of the Andean lakes in southern South America. We studied landlocked Galaxias maculatus (Jenyns) and Galaxias platei Steindachner populations in a deep oligotrophic lake (Lake Gutiérrez, Patagonia, Argentina). Their temporal and spatial distribution, intralacustrine movements (horizontal and vertical), and spawning periods were analysed using several sampling techniques (ichthyoplankton net, seine net, gill net, and baited benthic taps). We identified the early life stages of both species based on their morphology and otolith shape. The free embryos of both species migrate to the limnetic zone, where they coexist as larvae, facing the same food availability and probably the same predation risk. Each species then moves on to its own juvenile and adult habitat: the littoral and benthic zone for G. maculatus and only the deeper benthic zone for G. platei. Their adult habitats and part of their spawning periods partly overlap.

Distribution of introduced and native fish in Patagonia (Argentina): patterns and changes in fish assemblages

The interaction between native fishes and salmonids introduced in Patagonia at the beginning of the 20th Century, developed at the same time as the environmental change. The phenomenon of global warming has led to the formulation of predictions in relation to changes in the distribution of species, in the latitudinal dimension, both at intralacustrine, or small streams levels. The aim of the present work includes three main objectives: a) to compose a general and updated picture of the latitudinal distribution range of native and alien fishes, b) to analyze the historical changes in the relative abundance of Percichthys trucha, Odontesthes sp., and salmonids in lakes and reservoirs, and c) to relate the diversity and relative abundance of native and salmonid fishes to the environmental variables of lakes and reservoirs. We analysed previous records and an ensemble of data about new locations along the northern border of the Patagonian Province. We compared current data about the relative abundance of native fishes and salmonids in lakes and reservoirs, with previous databases (1984–1987). All samplings considered were performed during spring-summer surveys and include relative abundance, as proportions of salmonids, P. trucha, and Odontesthes sp. For the first time, we found changes in fish assemblages from twenty years back up to the present: a significant decline in the relative abundances of salmonids and an increase of P. trucha. We studied the association between the diversity and relative abundance of native and salmonid fishes and the environmental variables of lakes and reservoirs using Canonical Correspondence Analysis. Relative abundance showed mainly geographical cues and the diversity relied largely on morphometric characteristics. Relative abundance and diversity seem to have a common point in the lake area, included into the PAR concept. Native abundance and alien diversity were negatively related with latitude. Greater native diversity was observed in lakes with high PAR compared with salmonids. Historical changes such as southward dispersion, relative abundance changes, and geographical patterns for relative abundance and diversity are basic concepts needed not only in future research but also in management design for Patagonian fish populations.

Intralacustrine movements of Galaxias maculatus (Galaxiidae) and Ondontesthes microlepidotus (Atherinidae) during their early life history

SynopsisGalaxias maculatus and Odontesthes microlepidotus undertook significant habitat shifts in a small Araucanian lake during their early life history. After hatching in the littoral zone, free embryos migrate to the limnetic zone. Later, larvae return to the littoral. A third movement, littoral-limnetic, is suggested through acoustic records of fish in the limnetic zone which correspond with the growth curve of littoral sampled juveniles.

Ontogenetic shifts in the diet ofGalaxias maculatus (Galaxiidae) andOdontesthes microlepidotus (Atherinidae)

SynopsisThe feeding habits ofGalaxias maculatus (Galaxiidae) andOdontesthes microlepidotus (Atherinidae) larvae and juveniles were studied in an Araucanian lake of Argentina. Fish specimens were grouped, on the basis of the percentage of each food category found in their gut, using multivariate methods. These groups of fishes showed significant differences in average total length. Positive correlations between prey size and fish length were also detected. Diet overlap between juvenileG. maculatus and juvenileO. microlepidotus was observed. We discuss the interaction between the two species and the role of functional capabilities for prey capture during these early life periods.

Intraspecific variation in diet, growth, and morphology of landlocked Galaxias maculatus during its larval period: the role of food availability and predation risk

Food availability and predation risk have been shown to affect phenotypes during early life history of fishes. Galaxias maculatus, a small fish widely distributed around the southern hemisphere, clearly exhibits a complex trade-off between feeding and predation avoidance during growth over the larval period. We studied the effect of different environmental variables on diet, growth, mortality, and morphology through field surveys and data revision in the literature for limnetic G. maculatus larvae in five oligotrophic lakes of Patagonia. Both number of food categories and prey ingested by larvae were directly related to zooplankton density. Larval growth rate was related with zooplankton density and temperature. Lakes with high zooplankton densities and low predation risk had larvae with deeper bodies and shorter caudal peduncles, while in lakes with less food and high predation risk larvae were slender with shallower bodies and longer peduncles. Food availability and predation risk seem to operate on the swimming performance of G. maculatus larvae through the slenderness of the body and the length of the caudal peduncle. The observed phenotypic variation in growth and morphology could be a key feature that has allowed this species to successfully colonize a wide variety of environments in the southern hemisphere.

Phylogeography of the catfish Hatcheria macraei reveals a negligible role of drainage divides in structuring populations

Southern South America provides a set of unusual geographic features that make it particularly interesting for studying phylogeography. The Andes Mountains run along a north‐to‐south axis and act as a barrier to gene flow for much of the biota of this region, with southern portions experiencing extensive historical glaciation. Geological data reveal a series of drainage reversals, shifting from Pacific Ocean outlets to Atlantic Ocean outlets because of glacier formation that dammed and reversed rivers. Once glaciers melted around 13 000 years ago, drainages returned to the Pacific Ocean. This geologic history predicts that aquatic organisms in Pacific rivers should have their closest relationships to their counterparts in Atlantic rivers immediately to their east. We tested this prediction in the trichomycterid catfish Hatcheria macraei from 38 locations using the mitochondrial cytochrome b gene. Our results show that most populations found in Pacific rivers were closely related to fish found in the adjacent Atlantic draining Río Chubut. Surprisingly, one documented drainage reversal (from Río Deseado into Río Baker) did not result in movement of H. macraei. Overall, we found the lowest levels of genetic structure between most Pacific rivers that are adjacent to the Atlantic draining Río Chubut. We also found low levels of population structuring among three of four contemporary river basins that drain to the Atlantic Ocean. Our findings suggest that drainage basin boundaries have historically not played an important long‐term role in structuring between nine of 11 drainages, an unusual finding in freshwater biogeography.

Early morphological variation and induction of phenotypic plasticity in Patagonian pejerrey

The aim of this work was to study two aspects of phenotypic plasticity in the Patagonian pejerrey Odontesthes hatcheri (Teleostei: Atherinopsidae) the dependence of the early morphology on developmental time and temperature, and the induction of morphological changes by controlled feeding in juveniles. Newly hatched free embryos, incubated at two different temperatures (13 and 18oC), and juveniles were used for the study and induction of phenotypic plasticity. Body and head shapes were analyzed with geometric morphometrics and linear measurements. Our results showed that shape variation at hatching was related to the bending of the embryo head on the yolk sac, increasing the head-trunk angle due to progressive straightening of the embryo. The head-trunk angle was related with temperature at incubation, with embryos incubated at higher temperature being more bent. Embryos that hatched earlier had bigger yolk sacs than those that hatched later. In juveniles, controlled feeding experiments added new morphological variation to that of wild juveniles. In all comparisons, the slenderness of the head, the size of premaxilla and jaw, and the position of the eye showed an enlarged variation due to controlled feeding. These results will contribute to comprehending the complexity of the morphological variation of O. hatcheri.

Cephalic morphological variation in freshwater silversides Odontesthes hatcheri and Odontesthes bonariensis in Patagonia: introgression and ecological relationships

Based on geometric morphometrics and discriminant analysis, the percentage of silverside Odontesthes hatcheri and Odontesthes bonariensis individuals identified by a taxonomic key and misclassified by discriminant analysis was obtained and a negative correlation between the percentage of misclassified individuals of O. hatcheri and the distance to the nearest hatchery stocking silversides was found, suggesting a genetic introgression. Morphological analyses between species, between populations and within populations pointed to the same anatomical structures, suggesting a nested variation related to environmental cues such as availability of littoral shelter. The dependence between the cephalic morphology of O. hatcheri and body size would be in agreement with the trophic niche shifts of the species. Introgression adds a new threat to the already observed decline of populations of O. hatcheri and suggests that this species deserves particular consideration in terms of conservation guidelines.

Growth and nutritional condition of the larvae of Odontesthes microlepidotus (Atherinidae): an experimental approach

SynopsisThe relation between the feeding and mortality of fish larvae is mediated not only by starvation but also by their growth. In this work, daily otolith ring deposition was analysed in laboratory-reared larvae of Odontesthes microlepidotus (Jenyns), and their growth was studied in relation to ring number and otolith diameter. The nutritional condition of these larvae was assessed by means of morphometric comparisons between fed and starved larvae in order to develop a tool to evaluate the nutritional status of larvae in breeding areas. Changes in body shape have been found as a consequence of starvation. No dependence was found between mean hepatocyte nuclear area and fasting.