Miguel Quemada

Temperature and moisture effects on C and N mineralization from surface applied clover residue

A better understanding of the effect of temperature (T) and moisture on soil microbial activity should improve our ability to predict N mineralization from soil organic matter and crop residues. The objective of this study was to evaluate the effects of water potential (ψ) and T on C and N mineralization from unamended Cecil loamy sand soil (clayey, kaolinitic, thermic Typic Kanhapludult) and from crimson clover (Trifolium incarnatum L.) residues applied on the soil surface. Cecil soil was packed into acrylic plastic cylinders, adjusted to -5.0, -1.5, -0.03, or -0.003 MPa, treated with clover residues on the surface or left unamended, and incubated at 10, 20, 28, or 35°C for 21 d. Headspace gas samples for CO2 and N2O determinations were taken periodically and NH3 evolved was trapped. Inorganic N in soil and residue extracts was analyzed after 21 d. When ψ increased from -5.0 to -0.003 MPa, total CO2 evolved from unamended soil increased linearly with ln(-ψ), whereas total CO2 evolved from clover residue increased exponentially with ψ. In both cases the effect of ψ was enhanced as T increased. Two-dimensional (T, ψ) equations were developed to describe these effects. Apparent net mineralized N from the clover residue increased with ψ until it reached a maximum between -0.5 and -0.03 Mpa.

Do cover crops enhance N2O, CO2 or CH4 emissions from soil in Mediterranean arable systems?

This study evaluates the effect of planting three cover crops (CCs) (barley, Hordeum vulgare L.; vetch, Vicia villosa L.; rape, Brassica napus L.) on the direct emission of N₂O, CO₂ and CH₄ in the intercrop period and the impact of incorporating these CCs on the emission of greenhouse gas (GHG) from the forthcoming irrigated maize (Zea mays L.) crop. Vetch and barley were the CCs with the highest N₂O and CO₂ losses (75 and 47% increase compared with the control, respectively) in the fallow period. In all cases, fluxes of N₂O were increased through N fertilization and the incorporation of barley and rape residues (40 and 17% increase, respectively). The combination of a high C:N ratio with the addition of an external source of mineral N increased the fluxes of N₂O compared with -Ba and -Rp. The direct emissions of N₂O were lower than expected for a fertilized crop (0.10% emission factor, EF) compared with other studies and the IPCC EF. These results are believed to be associated with a decreased NO₃(-) pool due to highly denitrifying conditions and increased drainage. The fluxes of CO₂ were in the range of other fertilized crops (i.e., 1118.71-1736.52 kg CO₂-Cha(-1)). The incorporation of CC residues enhanced soil respiration in the range of 21-28% for barley and rape although no significant differences between treatments were detected. Negative CH₄ fluxes were measured and displayed an overall sink effect for all incorporated CC (mean values of -0.12 and -0.10 kg CH₄-Cha(-1) for plots with and without incorporated CCs, respectively).

Predicting crop residue decomposition using moisture adjusted time scales

Crop residue decomposition is generally described by exponential decay functions with empirically determined decay constants. The most common time scales used are days after application (DAA), degree-days (DD) and decomposition-days (DCD). We propose a new time scale (corrected degree-days, CDD) that reflects the effect of moisture on decomposition by dividing the daily mean temperature by the difference between maximum and minimum temperature. The objectives of this study were to compare the ability of using different time scales to predict biomass decomposition, and to account for the effect of weather conditions on biomass decomposition. Results from a 4-month litterbag study in which crimson clover (Trifolium incarnatum L.), rye (Secale cereale L.), wheat (Triticum aestivum L.), and oats (Avena sativa L.) were allowed to decompose on the soil surface were used to validate the models under field conditions. The first-order exponential model using either DAA, DD, DCD or CDD as time scales was able to properly estimate biomass decomposition. However, only when time was calculated using DCD and CDD methodologies was the model able to account for the effect of weather conditions on residue decomposition. The concept of CDD has several advantages that may justify the use of this time scale in field decomposition studies: the calculation is simple, is exclusively based on climatic conditions, and allows to reflect possible temperature and moisture interactions in decomposition.

The kill date as a management tool for cover cropping success.

Integrating cover crops (CC) in rotations provides multiple ecological services, but it must be ensured that management does not increase pre-emptive competition with the subsequent crop. This experiment was conducted to study the effect of kill date on: (i) CC growth and N content; (ii) the chemical composition of residues; (iii) soil inorganic N and potentially mineralizable N; and (iv) soil water content. Treatments were fallow and a CC mixture of barley (Hordeum vulgare L.) and vetch (Vicia sativa L.) sown in October and killed on two different dates in spring. Above-ground biomass and chemical composition of CC were determined at harvest, and ground cover was monitored based on digital image analysis. Soil mineral N was determined before sowing and after killing the CC, and potentially mineralizable N was measured by aerobic incubation at the end of the experiment. Soil water content was monitored daily to a depth of 1.1 m using capacitance sensors. Under the present conditions of high N availability, delaying kill date increased barley above-ground biomass and N uptake from deep soil layers; little differences were observed in vetch. Postponing kill date increased the C/N ratio and the fiber content of plant residues. Ground cover reached >80% by the first kill date (∼1250°C days). Kill date was a means to control soil inorganic N by balancing the N retained in the residue and soil, and showed promise for mitigating N losses. The early kill date decreased the risk of water and N pre-emptive competition by reducing soil depletion, preserving rain harvested between kill dates and allowing more time for N release in spring. The soil potentially mineralizable N was enhanced by the CC and kill date delay. Therefore kill date is a crucial management variable for maximizing the CC benefits in agricultural systems.

Characteristic moisture curves and maximum water content of two crop residues

Limited data are available relating water potential (Ψ) to crop residue water content (Θ), although this relationship is important to study decomposition and moisture retention of the residue layer in no-till systems and other agricultural situations where residues are used. The objectives of this study were (i) to determine the characteristic moisture curves of rye (Secale cereale L.) and clover residues (Trifolium incarnatum L.), and (ii) to determine residue characteristics that can predict maximum water content of crop residues. Air-dried residues were separated into leaves and stems, cut into 0.5 cm length pieces and saturated with distilled water. Pieces of the drained residues were dried to various water contents in the laboratory and then transferred into thermocouple psychrometer chambers. Characteristic moisture functions of the type Ψ = a ċ Θ−b, where a and b are empirical constants, were fitted to the data. The characteristic moisture curves had a similar shape to that of a Cecil sandy loam soil used as an example; however, while plant residues were able to retain up to 4.3 g H2O g−1, the mineral soil retained only 0.22 g H2O g−1. Soluble carbohydrate concentration can be used as a practical index to estimate maximum water content of residues, given the good relationship between both variables (R2 = 0.92).

Quantitative characterization of five cover crop species

SUMMARY The introduction of cover crops in the intercrop period may provide a broad range of ecosystem services derived from the multiple functions they can perform, such as erosion control, recycling of nutrients or forage source. However,the achievementof these services in a particularagrosystemisnot always requiredat the same time or to thesamedegree.Thus,species selection anddefinitionof targeted objectivesiscritical whengrowing covercrops. The goal of the current work was to describe the traits that determine the suitability of five species (barley, rye, triticale, mustard and vetch) for cover cropping. A field trial was established during two seasons (October to April) in Madrid (central Spain). Ground cover and biomass were monitored at regular intervals during each growing season. A Gompertz model characterized ground cover until the decay observed after frosts, while biomass was fitted to Gompertz, logistic and linear-exponential equations. At the end of the experiment, carbon (C), nitrogen (N), and fibre (neutral detergent, acid and lignin) contents, and the N fixed by the legume were determined. The grasses reached the highest ground cover (83–99%) and biomass (1226–1928 g/m 2 ) at the end of the experiment. With the highest C:N ratio (27–39) and dietary fibre (527–600 mg/g) and the lowest residue quality (*680 mg/g), grasses were suitable for erosion control, catch crop and fodder. The vetch presented the lowest N uptake (2·4 and 0·7 g N/m 2 ) due to N fixation (9·8 and 1·6 g N/m 2 ) and low biomass accumulation. The mustard presented high N uptake in the warm year and could act as a catch crop, but low fodder capability in both years. The thermal time before reaching 30% ground cover was a good indicator of early coverage species. Variable quantification allowed finding variability among the species and provided information for further decisions involving cover crop selection and management.

Available Nitrogen for Corn and Winter Cereal in Spanish Soils Measured by Electro‐ultrafiltration, Calcium Chloride, and Incubation Methods

Abstract Comparison of methods is necessary to develop a quick and reliable test that can be used to determine soil‐available nitrogen (N) in an attempt to increase the efficiency of N fertilizers and reduce losses. The objectives of this research were to compare the fractions extracted by the calcium chloride (CaCl2) and the electro‐ultrafiltration (EUF) methods and to correlate them to the mineralization rate (k) obtained from a 112‐d incubation of 61 soil samples. Thirty‐five soil samples were collected from cornfields and 26 from winter cereal fields. Subsamples were either aerobically incubated to calculate k or extracted by the EUF and CaCl2 methods to identify three fractions: nitrate (NO3 −)‐N, ammonium (NH4 +)‐N, and Norg‐N. The Norg‐N extracted by both methods was larger in soils from cornfields than in soils from winter cereal fields. In samples from cornfields, the Norg‐N fraction obtained by the EUF method was correlated to the Norg‐N measured by the CaCl2 method (r=0.46). Soil N content was related to k in samples from cornfields (r=0.40) but not in samples from winter cereal fields. Also, k was correlated to inorganic N content extracted by both chemical methods. The CaCl2 method was a reliable alternative for laboratories to determine soil‐available N for corn but not for winter cereal.

Spectral Indices to Improve Crop Residue Cover Estimation under Varying Moisture Conditions

Crop residues on the soil surface protect the soil against erosion, increase water infiltration and reduce agrochemicals in runoff water. Crop residues and soils are spectrally different in the absorption features associated with cellulose and lignin. Our objectives were to: (1) assess the impact of water on the spectral indices for estimating crop residue cover (fR); (2) evaluate spectral water indices for estimating the relative water content (RWC) of crop residues and soils; and (3) propose methods that mitigate the uncertainty caused by variable moisture conditions on estimates of fR. Reflectance spectra of diverse crops and soils were acquired in the laboratory over the 400–2400-nm wavelength region. Using the laboratory data, a linear mixture model simulated the reflectance of scenes with various fR and levels of RWC. Additional reflectance spectra were acquired over agricultural fields with a wide range of crop residue covers and scene moisture conditions. Spectral indices for estimating crop residue cover that were evaluated in this study included the Normalized Difference Tillage Index (NDTI), the Shortwave Infrared Normalized Difference Residue Index (SINDRI) and the Cellulose Absorption Index (CAI). Multivariate linear models that used pairs of spectral indices—one for RWC and one for fR—significantly improved estimates of fR using CAI and SINDRI. For NDTI to reliably assess fR, scene RWC should be relatively dry (RWC < 0.25). These techniques provide the tools needed to monitor the spatial and temporal changes in crop residue cover and help determine where additional conservation practices may be required.

Thermographic Imaging: Assessment of Drought and Heat Tolerance in Spanish Germplasm of Brachypodium Distachyon☆

The annual grass Brachypodium distachyon has been recently recognized as the model plant for functional genomics of temperate grasses, including cereals of economic relevance like wheat and barley. Sixty-two lines of B. distachyon were assessed for response to drought stress and heat tolerance. All these lines, except the reference genotype BD21, derive from specimens collected in 32 distinct locations of the Iberian Peninsula, covering a wide range of geo- climatic conditions. Sixteen lines of Brachypodium hybridum, an allotetraploid closely related to B. distachyon were used as reference of abiotic-stress well-adapted genotypes. Drought tolerance was assessed in a green-house trial. At the rosette-stage, no irrigation was applied to treated plants whereas their replicates at the control were maintained well watered during all the experiment. Thermographic images of treated and control plants were taken after 2 and 3 weeks of drought treatment, when stressed plants showed medium and extreme wilting symptoms. The mean leaf temperature of stressed (LTs) and control (LTc) plants was estimated based upon thermographic records from selected pixels (183 per image) that strictly correspond to leaf tissue. The response to drought was based on the analysis of two parameters: LTs and the thermal difference (TD) between stressed and control plants (LTs – LTc). The response to heat stress was based on LTc. Comparison of the mean values of these parameters showed that: 1) Genotypes better adapted to drought (B. hybridum lines) presented a higher LTs and TD than B. distachyon lines. 2) Under high temperature conditions, watered plants of B. hybridum lines maintained lower LTc than those of B. distachyon. Those results suggest that in these species adaptation to drought is linked to a more efficient stomata regulation: under water stress stomata are closed, increasing foliar temperature but also water use efficiency by reducing transpiration. With high temperature and water availability the results are less definite, but still seems that opening stomata allow plants to increase transpiration and therefore to diminish foliar temperature.

Use of thermographic imaging to screen for drought-tolerant genotypes in Brachypodium distachyon

Abstract. Thermal imaging has been used to evaluate the response to drought and warm temperatures in a collection of Brachypodium distachyon lines adapted to varied environmental conditions. Thermographic records were able to separate lines from contrasting rainfall regimes. Genotypes from dryer environments showed warmer leaves under water deficit, which suggested that decreased evapotranspiration was related to a more intense stomatal closure. When irrigated and under high temperature conditions, drought-adapted lines showed cooler leaves than lines from wetter zones. The consistent, inverse thermographic response of lines to water stress and heat validates the reliability of this method to assess drought tolerance in this model cereal. It additionally supports the hypothesis that stomatal-based mechanisms are involved in natural variation for drought tolerance in Brachypodium. The study further suggests that these mechanisms are not constitutive but likely related to a more efficient closing response to avoid dehydration in adapted genotypes. Higher leaf temperature under water deficit seems a dependable criterion of drought tolerance, not only in B. distachyon but also in the main cereal crops and related grasses where thermography can facilitate high-throughput preliminary screening of tolerant materials.