Mikel Zabala

Doping in Sport: A Review of Elite Athletes' Attitudes, Beliefs, and Knowledge

Doping in sport is a well-known phenomenon that has been studied mainly from a biomedical point of view, even though psychosocial approaches are also key factors in the fight against doping. This phenomenon has evolved greatly in recent years, and greater understanding of it is essential for developing efficient prevention programmes. In the psychosocial approach, attitudes are considered an index of doping behaviour, relating the use of banned substances to greater leniency towards doping. The aim of this review is to gather and critically analyse the most recent publications describing elite athletes’ attitudes, beliefs and knowledge of doping in sport, to better understand the foundations provided by the previous work, and to help develop practical strategies to efficiently combat doping. For this purpose, we performed a literature search using combinations of the terms “doping”, “sport”, “elite athletes”, “attitudes”, “beliefs”, “knowledge”, “drugs”, and “performance-enhancing substances” (PES). A total of 33 studies were subjected to comprehensive assessment using articles published between 2000 and 2011. All of the reports focused on elite athletes and described their attitudes, beliefs and knowledge of doping in sport. The initial reasons given for using banned substances included achievement of athletic success by improving performance, financial gain, improving recovery and prevention of nutritional deficiencies, as well as the idea that others use them, or the “false consensus effect”. Although most athletes acknowledge that doping is cheating, unhealthy and risky because of sanctions, its effectiveness is also widely recognized. There is a general belief about the inefficacy of anti-doping programmes, and athletes criticise the way tests are carried out. Most athletes consider the severity of punishment is appropriate or not severe enough. There are some differences between sports, as team-based sports and sports requiring motor skills could be less influenced by doping practices than individual self-paced sports. However, anti-doping controls are less exhaustive in team sports. The use of banned substance also differs according to the demand of the specific sport. Coaches appear to be the main influence and source of information for athletes, whereas doctors and other specialists do not seem to act as principal advisors. Athletes are becoming increasingly familiar with anti-doping rules, but there is still a lack of knowledge that should be remedied using appropriate educational programmes. There is also a lack of information on dietary supplements and the side effects of PES. Therefore, information and prevention are necessary, and should cater to the athletes and associated stakeholders. This will allow us to establish and maintain correct attitudes towards doping. Psychosocial programmes must be carefully planned and developed, and should include middle- to long-term objectives (e.g. changing attitudes towards doping and the doping culture). Some institutions have developed or started prevention or educational programmes without the necessary resources, while the majority of the budget is spent on anti-doping testing. Controls are obviously needed, as well as more efficient educational strategies. Therefore, we encourage sporting institutions to invest in educational programmes aimed at discouraging the use of banned substances. Event organizers and sport federations should work together to adapt the rules of each competition to disincentivize dopers. Current research methods are weak, especially questionnaires. A combination of qualitative and quantitative measurements are recommended, using interviews, questionnaires and, ideally, biomedical tests. Studies should also examine possible geographical and cultural differences in attitudes towards doping.

Artificial neural network-based equation for estimating VO2max from the 20m shuttle run test in adolescents

OBJECTIVE To develop an artificial neural network (ANN)-equation to estimate maximal oxygen uptake (VO(2max)) from 20m shuttle run test (20 mSRT) performance (stage), sex, age, weight, and height in young persons. METHODS The 20 mSRT was performed by 193 (122 boys and 71 girls) adolescents aged 13-19 years. All the adolescents wore a portable gas analyzer to measure VO(2) and heart rate during the test. The equation was developed and cross-validated following the ANN mathematical model. The neural net performance was assessed through several error measures. Agreement between the measured VO(2max) and estimated VO(2max) from Légers and ANN equations were analysed following the Bland and Altman method. RESULTS The percentage error was 17.13 and 7.38 for Léger and ANN-equation (P<0.001), respectively, and the standard error of the estimate obtained with Légers equation was 4.27 ml/(kg min), while for the ANN-equation was 2.84 ml/(kg min). A Bland-Altman plot for the measured VO(2max) and Léger-VO(2max) showed a mean difference of 4.9 ml/(kg min) (P<0.001), while the Bland-Altman plot for the measured VO(2max) and ANN-VO(2max) showed a mean difference of 0.5 ml/(kg min) (P=0.654). In the validation sample, the percentage error was 21.08 and 8.68 for Léger and ANN-equation (P<0.001), respectively. CONCLUSIONS In this study, an ANN-based equation to estimate VO(2max) from 20 mSRT performance (stage), sex, age, weight, and height in adolescents was developed and cross-validated. The newly developed equation was shown to be more accurate than Légers. The proposed model has been coded in a user-friendly spreadsheet.

Anthropometric characteristics, body composition and somatotype of elite junior tennis players

Objectives: The aims of this study were to describe the anthropometric characteristics, body composition and somatotype of elite male and female junior tennis players, to compare the anthropometric data, body composition and somatotype of the first 12 elite junior tennis players on the ranking with the lower ranked players, and to establish an anthropometric profile chart for elite junior tennis players. Methods: A total of 123 (57 males and 66 females) elite junior tennis players participated in this study. The athletes were divided into two groups, the first 12 and the lower ranked players, according to gender. A total of 17 anthropometric variables were recorded of each subject. Results: There were no significant differences in height and weight between the first 12 and the lower ranked boys, while the first 12 girls were significantly taller than the lower ranked girls (p = 0.009). Significant differences were found for humeral and femoral breadths between the first 12 and the lower ranked girls (p = 0.000; p = 0.004, respectively). The mean (SD) somatotype of elite male junior tennis players could be defined as ectomesomorphic (2.4 (0.7), 5.2 (0.8), 2.9 (0.7)) and the mean (SD) somatotype of elite female junior tennis players evaluated could be defined as endomesomorphic (3.8 (0.9), 4.6 (1.0), 2.4 (1.0)). No significant differences were found in somatotype components between the first 12 and the lower ranked players of both genders. Conclusions: When comparing the first 12 and the lower ranked elite junior tennis players of both genders, no significant differences were observed in any measured item for the boys. By contrast, significant differences were observed in height and humeral and femoral breadths between the first 12 and the lower ranked girls, whereby the first 12 were taller and had wider humeral and femoral breadths than the lower ranked players. These differences could influence the playing style of junior female players.

Cognitive performance and heart rate variability: the influence of fitness level.

In the present study, we investigated the relation between cognitive performance and heart rate variability as a function of fitness level. We measured the effect of three cognitive tasks (the psychomotor vigilance task, a temporal orienting task, and a duration discrimination task) on the heart rate variability of two groups of participants: a high-fit group and a low-fit group. Two major novel findings emerged from this study. First, the lowest values of heart rate variability were found during performance of the duration discrimination task, compared to the other two tasks. Second, the results showed a decrement in heart rate variability as a function of the time on task, although only in the low-fit group. Moreover, the high-fit group showed overall faster reaction times than the low-fit group in the psychomotor vigilance task, while there were not significant differences in performance between the two groups of participants in the other two cognitive tasks. In sum, our results highlighted the influence of cognitive processing on heart rate variability. Importantly, both behavioral and physiological results suggested that the main benefit obtained as a result of fitness level appeared to be associated with processes involving sustained attention.

Effects of sodium bicarbonate ingestion on performance and perceptual responses in a laboratory-simulated BMX cycling qualification series.

Zabala, M, Requena, B, Sánchez-Muñoz, C, González-Badillo, JJ, García, I, Ööpik, V, and Pääsuke, M. Effects of sodium bicarbonate ingestion on performance and perceptual responses in a laboratory-simulated BMX cycling qualification series. J Strength Cond Res 22(5): 1645-1653, 2008-The objective of this study was to examine the effect of sodium bicarbonate (NaHCO3−) ingestion on performance and perceptual responses in a laboratory-simulated bicycle motocross (BMX) qualification series. Nine elite BMX riders volunteered to participate in this study. After familiarization, subjects undertook two trials involving repeated sprints (3 × Wingate tests [WTs] separated by 30 minutes of recovery; WT1, WT2, WT3). Ninety minutes before each trial, subjects ingested either NaHCO3− or placebo in a counterbalanced, randomly assigned, double-blind manner. Each trial was separated by 4 days. Performance variables of peak power, mean power, time to peak power, and fatigue index were calculated for each sprint. Ratings of perceived exertion were obtained after each sprint, and ratings of perceived readiness were obtained before each sprint. No significant differences were observed in performance variables between successive sprints or between trials. For the NaHCO3− trial, peak blood lactate during recovery was greater after WT2 (p < 0.05) and tended to be greater after WT3 (p = 0.07), and ratings of perceived exertion were not influenced. However, improved ratings of perceived readiness were observed before WT2 and WT3 (p < 0.05). In conclusion, NaHCO3− ingestion had no effect on performance and RPE during a series of three WT simulating a BMX qualification series, possibly because of the short duration of each effort and the long recovery time used between the three WTs. On the contrary, NaHCO3− ingestion improved perceived readiness before each WT.

Factors associated with low adherence to a Mediterranean diet in healthy children in northern Spain

There is a tendency in Mediterranean countries to abandon the characteristic Mediterranean diet. This is especially apparent within younger populations. This could have negative consequences for health such as, cardiovascular diseases, obesity or metabolic syndrome. The aim of this study was to describe adherence to the Mediterranean diet within a population of school children and to examine the influence of different socio-demographic factors and lifestyle habits. The study was conducted on a representative sample of 321 school children aged 11-12 years from 31 schools in the city of Logroño (La Rioja). Socio-demographic variables, anthropometric variables, blood pressure, level of development, aerobic fitness, lifestyle, physical activity habits and adherence to the Mediterranean diet were recorded. High adherence to the Mediterranean diet was reported by 46.7% of school children, with low adherence being reported by 4.7% of them. Children attending state schools, immigrants and families from low-to-medium socio-economic strata reported significantly lower adherence to the Mediterranean diet (p = .039), but the results did not reveal any significant differences in terms of body composition. Correlations were found between adherence to the Mediterranean diet and other lifestyle habits, especially level of physical activity (r = .38) and screen time (r = -.18). Adherence to a Mediterranean diet differs according to the type of school attended by children, and the childs nationality and socio-economic status. Children who attended state schools, immigrants and those from families with a medium-to-low socio-economic status were less likely to follow healthy diets.

Antioxidant defence and inflammatory response in professional road cyclists during a 4-day competition

Abstract Cycling competitions represent an important physical overload even for well-trained individuals. In six professional cyclists, we studied the adaptive oxidative and anti-inflammatory response to a 4-day road cycling competition and its relationship with melatonin, an antioxidant and anti-inflammatory stress hormone. Blood and urine samples were collected before and after the competition. Plasma lipid peroxidation, cytokines (interleukin-1β, interleukin-6, and tumour necrosis factor-α), creatine kinase and other metabolic markers, melatonin, erythrocyte glutathione, and glutathione peroxidase and reductase activities were measured. Urinary excretion of 6-sulphatoxymelatonin was analysed. Lipid peroxidation increased after the competition, but the erythrocyte glutathione pool remained unchanged. Changes in both glutathione peroxidase and reductase activities probably account for the recycling of glutathione after exercise. Interleukin-6 (216%) and tumour necrosis factor-α (159%) but not interleukin-1β increased after exercise. A parallel increase in plasma melatonin concentrations was detected, whereas metabolic markers, including creatine kinase, showed minor modifications. Thus, professional cyclists display an adaptative response to the physical overloads in the competitions for which they are trained. Consequently, they seem to be able to regulate efficiently the intracellular oxidative stress, and prevent an exaggerated pro-inflammatory cytokines induction. A modulator role of melatonin in these adaptive responses is also supported.

Attitudes towards doping and related experience in Spanish national cycling teams according to different olympic disciplines.

Attitudes towards doping are considered an influence of doping intentions. The aims of the present study were 1) to discover and compare the attitudes towards doping among Spanish national team cyclists from different Olympic disciplines, as well as 2) to get some complementary information that could better explain the context. The sample was comprised of seventy-two cyclists: mean age 19.67±4.72 years; 70.8% males (n = 51); from the different Olympic disciplines of Mountain bike -MTB- (n = 18), Bicycle Moto Cross -BMX- (n = 12), Track -TRA- (n = 9) and Road -ROA- (n = 33). Descriptive design was carried out using a validated scale (PEAS). To complement this, a qualitative open-ended questionnaire was used. Overall mean score (17–102) was 36.12±9.39. For different groups, the data were: MTB: 30.28±6.92; BMX: 42.46±10.74; TRA: 43.22±12.00; ROA: 34.91±6.62, respectively. In relation to overall score, significant differences were observed between MTB and BMX (p = 0.002) and between MTB and TRA (p = 0.003). For the open-ended qualitative questionnaire, the most mentioned word associated with “doping” was “cheating” (48.83% of total sample), with “responsible agents of doping” the word “doctor” (52,77%), and with the “main reason for the initiation in doping” the words “sport achievement” (45.83%). The major proposed solution was “doing more doping controls” (43.05%). Moreover, 48.67% stated that there was “a different treatment between cycling and other sports”. This study shows that Spanish national team cyclists from Olympic cycling disciplines, in general, are not tolerant in relation to doping. BMX and Track riders are a little more permissive towards the use of banned substances than MTB and Road. Results from the qualitative open-ended questionnaire showed interesting data in specific questions. These results empower the idea that, apart from maintaining doping controls and making them more efficient, anti-doping education programs are needed from the earliest ages.

Pedaling power and speed production vs. technical factors and track difficulty in bicycle motocross cycling.

Mateo, M, Blasco-Lafarga, C, and Zabala, M. Pedaling power and speed production vs. technical factors and track difficulty in BMX cycling. J Strength Cond Res 25(12): 3248–3256, 2011—This article analyzes whether there is a determined profile in the production of cyclic and acyclic periods in relation to the phases of a bicycle motocross (BMX) race and whether this profile is related to the variables, Difficulty of track and Techniques used. After an initial test for determining maximum pedaling power (Pmax), 9 athletes belonging to the Spanish national team completed 3 series of 3 different types of races: (a) Complete track without pedaling; (b) Track, pedaling only at the gate start; and (c) track with free pedaling. The triple test was carried out over 3 days and on different level tracks: (a) high difficulty (HD), (b) medium difficulty (MD), and (c) low difficulty (LD). Our results show that average peak power applied in the BMX race was 85.21 ± 2.15% Pmax, coming down to 73.02 ± 18.38% at the gate start and to 51.37 ± 15.84% on the first straight. On the other hand, mean power (MP) in the BMX race is 33.79 ± 8.60% MPmax, with statistically significant differences in relation to the difficulty of the track (p < 0.000; 0.009; higher in the easiest). The mean velocity developed is 34.21 ± 1.0 km·h−1 with significant differences (p < 0.000) in relation to the difficulty of the track. Acyclic efforts accounted for 86.3%, and cyclic efforts accounted for the remaining 16.7% of the overall performance in the race, with differences in relation to the difficulty of the track (p ≤ 0.003). Both power profile and performance (measured as velocity) are dependent on the phases and techniques of the race and are significantly affected by the level of difficulty of the track. The greater the technical level of the track, the lesser the possibility of developing cyclic power and vice versa.

Redox status and antioxidant response in professional cyclists during training

Abstract The aim of this study was to investigate whether different phases of training affect oxidative stress and antioxidant defences in professional cyclists. Ten professional cyclists, aged 21.8 ± 2.5 years, were enrolled in the study. They were classified into two groups of five athletes each one with similar nutritional intake excepting for the overload of vitamin C (1000 mg day−1) and E (400 mg day−1) supplementation in one of them. The cyclists of both groups performed the same exercise design, consisting of hard, tapering and recovery training periods. Total antioxidant capacity (TAC) of the diet, plasma oxygen radical absorption capacity (ORAC), lipid peroxidation (LPO), DNA damage (8-OHdG) and erythrocyte glutathione disulfide/glutathione ratio (GSSG:GSH−1) were measured. During the intense exercise trainings, the cyclists without vitamin supplements had the TAC of diet significantly lower than the supplemented group. Plasma ORAC, LPO and 8-OHdG were similar in both groups of athletes. Athletes with supplements had a basal LPO:ORAC−1 ratio lower than that without supplements, but this ratio converged to the same level at the end of the training in both groups of cyclists. Both groups of cyclists showed similar changes in GSSG:GSH−1 ratio and in GSSG and GSH levels along the study. The data suggest that well-trained athletes with suitable ultra-endurance training volume and intensity do not require antioxidant vitamin supplements to adapt their endogenous antioxidant defenses to exercise-induced ROS.