Miller Dc

Alterations in left ventricular twist mechanics with inotropic stimulation and volume loading in human subjects.

BACKGROUND Left ventricular (LV) twist, the longitudinal gradient of circumferential rotation about the LV long axis, may play an important role in the storage of potential energy at end systole and its subsequent release as elastic recoil during early diastole; however, the effects of load and inotropic state on LV systolic twist and diastolic untwist in human subjects have not previously been characterized. METHODS AND RESULTS Six cardiac transplant recipients with 12 implanted radiopaque midwall LV myocardial markers were studied 1 year after transplantation. Biplane cinefluoroscopic marker images and LV pressure were recorded during control conditions and after afterload augmentation (methoxamine, 5 to 10 micrograms.kg-1 x min-1), inotropic stimulation (dobutamine, 5 micrograms.kg-1 x min-1), and preload augmentation (volume loading with normal saline). Systolic twist dynamics were assessed by maximum twist (Tmax[rad/cm]), peak negative twist rate (-dT/dtmin[rad.cm-1 x s-1]), and the slope of the twist normalized-ejection fraction relation (T-nEFR, Msys[rad/cm]) during systole. Diastolic untwist was assessed by the peak positive untwist rate (+dT/dtmax [rad.cm-1 x s-1]) and the slopes (rad/cm) of the T-nEFR during early diastole (Mear-dia) and mid diastole (Mmid-dia). Compared with control values, LV pressure and volume loading had no significant effect on Tmax, -dT/dtmin, or Msys; however, inotropic stimulation significantly increased all parameters describing systolic twist (Tmax: -0.10 +/- 0.03 versus -0.06 +/- 0.02 rad/cm, P < .001; -dT/dtmin: -0.72 +/- 0.19 versus -0.44 +/- 0.22 rad.cm-1 x s-1, P < .001; Msys: -0.10 +/- 0.03 versus -0.06 +/- 0.01 rad/cm, P < .001). Pressure loading had no effect on early diastolic untwisting; however, dobutamine significantly increased M(ear)-dia (-0.24 +/- 0.06 versus -0.13 +/- 0.04 rad/cm, P < .0001) and +dT/dtmax (0.78 +/- 0.24 versus 0.45 +/- 0.16 rad.cm-1 x s-1, P < .001). Conversely, volume loading significantly decreased M(ear)-dia (-0.08 +/- 0.04 versus -0.13 +/- 0.04 rad/cm, P < .05). M(ear)-dia correlated directly with LV contractile state (as assessed as maximum dP/dt, r = .60, P < .0001) and inversely with end-systolic volume (r = -.87, P < .0001) but was unrelated to stroke volume (r = .08, P = .30) or LV afterload (estimated as effective arterial elastance, r = .08, P = .29). Mmid-dia did not change during any intervention. CONCLUSIONS In conscious human transplant patients, (1) pressure and volume loading do not affect systolic LV twist; (2) dobutamine augments systolic twist and early diastolic untwisting, suggesting more end-systolic potential energy storage and early diastolic elastic recoil with enhanced inotropic state; (3) volume loading decreases early diastolic untwisting, possibly reflecting diminished recoil forces after preload augmentation associated with larger end-systolic volumes (ESV); and (4) M(ear)-dia correlates strongly with ESV (in an inverse fashion), and less strongly, but directly, with LV dP/dtmax.

Alterations in left ventricular diastolic twist mechanics during acute human cardiac allograft rejection.

BACKGROUND Contraction of obliquely oriented left ventricular (LV) fibers results in a twisting motion of the left ventricle. The purpose of this study was to assess the effects of acute human cardiac allograft rejection on LV twist pattern and the twist-volume relation. METHODS AND RESULTS Tantalum markers were implanted into the LV midwall in 15 transplant recipients to measure time-varying, three-dimensional chamber twist using computer-assisted analysis of biplane cinefluoroscopic images. Twist was defined as the mean longitudinal gradient of circumferential rotation about the LV long axis. When plotted against normalized percent ejection fraction (%EF), the resulting twist-normalized %EF relation could be divided into three phases. In systole, LV twist was linearly related to ejection of blood. In contrast, diastolic untwist was characterized by early rapid recoil with little change in LV volume, followed by more gradual untwisting when the bulk of diastolic filling occurred. During 10 acute rejection episodes in 10 patients, maximum twist, peak systolic twist rate, and the slope of the systolic twist-normalized %EF relation did not change. In contrast, the slope of the early (first 15% of filling) diastolic twist-normalized %EF relation (M(early-dia)) decreased significantly (-0.194 +/- 0.062 [prerejection] versus -0.103 +/- 0.054 rad/cm [rejection], p = 0.0003), resulting in a prolonged tau 1/2 (time required to untwist by 50% [20 +/- 5% versus 28 +/- 5% of diastole], p = 0.0003) and decrease in percent untwisting at 15% diastolic LV filling (62 +/- 11% versus 36 +/- 13%, p = 0.0003). Therefore, a greater proportion of LV untwisting occurred later in diastole during rejection, as reflected by an increase in the slope (M(mid-dia)) of the middle to late (from 15 to 90% filling) diastolic twist-normalized %EF relation (-0.018 +/- 0.009 versus -0.030 +/- 0.010 rad/cm, p = 0.0015). Peak rate of untwist was not affected. With resolution of rejection, M(early-dia) and percent untwist during early diastole returned to baseline levels (p = NS versus baseline). There was also a trend for M(mid-dia) to return toward prerejection values (p = NS versus baseline), but this change did not reach statistical significance compared with rejection values. CONCLUSION Acute cardiac allograft rejection is associated with altered diastolic twist mechanics in the absence of any demonstratable systolic abnormalities. During rejection, myocardial edema and other factors may result in intrinsic changes of the elastic properties of the myocardium, thereby leading to modification of recoil forces responsible for the early, rapid unwinding of the deformed ventricle.

Torsional deformation of the left ventricular midwall in human hearts with intramyocardial markers: regional heterogeneity and sensitivity to the inotropic effects of abrupt rate changes

The spiral orientation of left ventricular (LV) fibers suggests that twisting about the ventricular long axis of the apex with respect to the base, i.e., torsional deformation, may be characteristic of LV contraction. To demonstrate this twisting motion, 10 orthotopic human cardiac allograft recipients were studied with biplane cineradiography of tantalum helices implanted within the LV midwall at 12 specific sites. Counterclockwise twisting about the LV long axis (as reviewed from apex to base) accompanied ventricular ejection in all patients. Torsional deformation angles, measured relative to a reference minor axis at the base, were substantially smaller in the anteroapical wall, as compared with counterparts in the apical third of the inferior and lateral walls (anterior = 13.3 ±6.0±, inferior =18.7±6.3±, and lateral = 23.4±10.7±). Torsional angles at the midventricular level were roughly half as much and exhibited similar regional variabilities (anterior = 7.6 ±3.3±, inferior = 9.0±3.3±, lateral = 10.7 ±5.2±, and septal = 8.8±3.8±). Comparison of control beats and the initial beat after abrupt cessation of rapid atrial pacing (126 ± 10 beats/min) with return to the control heart rate (96 ±9 beats/min) permitted the mild positive inotropic effect of tachycardia to be assessed at similar levels of ventricular load. Torsional deformation of the anteroapical and inferoaplcal sites increased significantly (p < 0.05) over control values to 15.6 ±7.5± and 21.2 ±5.5±, respectively. In contrast, torsional deformation of the lateral wall was essentially unchanged. These data provide direct evidence for torsional deformation of the left ventricle in humans, demonstrate that torsion of the LV chamber is nonuniform, and suggest a dependence of LV torsion upon contractile strength that is attenuated in the lateral wall.

Valvular-ventricular interaction: importance of the mitral apparatus in canine left ventricular systolic performance.

As the mitral valvular apparatus tenses during systole, forces transmitted along the chordae tendineae to the left ventricular chamber may influence left ventricular performance. To test this hypothesis, 10 dogs anesthetized with fentanyl were studied during cardiopulmonary bypass. The importance of the mitral apparatus in left ventricular systolic function was assessed independent of load by means of the slope of the contractile state-dependent left ventricular peak isovolumetric pressure-volume relationship (Emax), which was measured at constant heart rate and aortic pressure with a micromanometer inside a left ventricular intracavitary balloon before and immediately after all chordae tendineae were severed. Herniation of the balloon was prevented by a disk secured to the mitral anulus. Emax decreased from 11.97 +/- 3.35 (+/- SD) to 6.38 +/- 0.96 mm Hg/ml (p less than .001) with chordal severing. The volume intercept (Vo) was unchanged. Fluoroscopic studies of the balloon contour in eight additional dogs revealed dyskinesia in the area of the papillary muscle insertion and substantial alterations in chamber geometry during systole after the chordae were severed. Accordingly, we conclude that global left ventricular systolic performance is impaired when chordal attachments of the mitral valve are disrupted. Changes in left ventricular geometry or loss of inward force normally transmitted to the left ventricular wall as the valve tense may underlie these changes. These findings suggest that postoperative left ventricular dysfunction after mitral valve replacement may be attributable, in part, to excision of the native mitral apparatus at the time of surgery and support efforts to spare chordae during mitral valve surgery.

Effect of acute human cardiac allograft rejection on left ventricular systolic torsion and diastolic recoil measured by intramyocardial markers.

Left ventricular systolic torsion and diastolic recoil were quantified in 12 human cardiac transplant recipients with surgically implanted intramyocardial markers with the use of computer-aided analysis of biplane cineradiographic images. Measurements were performed between 6 and 16 weeks after surgery and related to the presence or absence of rejection as determined by cardiac biopsy. Torsional deformation, defined as twisting about the left ventricular long axis of the apical region with respect to the base, was characterized in terms of the rate and amplitude of systolic torsion and the rate of diastolic recoil by means of an internal reference system. Comparison of measurements before, during, and after recovery from 14 rejection episodes allowed assessment of the effects of acute reversible cardiomyopathy on left ventricular torsion and recoil. Compared with prerejection values, the amplitude of torsional deformation in the maximally deforming segment (theta max) decreased by 25% from 21.1 +/- 15.2 to 16.0 +/- 5.7 degrees (p less than .005) during acute rejection with myocyte necrosis; this was associated with significant (p less than .05) decreases in the peak systolic torsion rate (+d theta/dtmax), whereas the peak diastolic recoil rate (-d theta/dtmax) was unchanged. This suggests that the stiffness of elastic components of the myocardium may have increased, maintaining the rate of diastolic recoil when these elements are stretched less. With successful treatment of rejection episodes, the torsional deformation characteristics normalized. Heart rate, mean arterial pressure, left ventricular end-diastolic volume, stroke volume, ejection fraction, and peak left ventricular filling rate were unchanged with rejection episodes, whereas left ventricular end-systolic volume increased (p less than .05) during acute rejection and returned to normal with resolution of the rejection process. These data suggest that left ventricular torsional deformation amplitude and rate are sensitive to episodes of subclinical left ventricular dysfunction and that such intramyocardial marker techniques may provide new insights regarding the elastic properties of the ventricular myocardium and their impact on left ventricular mechanics.

Cardiac cryolesions as an experimental model of myocardial wound healing.

The standard coronary ligation model for experimental myocardial infarction results in variable areas and patterns of necrosis; therefore, the healing of such infarctions is also variable. The authors developed an experimental myocardial injury model using simple cryoinjury, which allows standardization of the size, depth, and location of the wound. Thirty-eight left ventricular cryolesions were created in 19 dogs, which were then killed from 3 to 35 days after injury. A consistent decrease in the depth of scar (p less than 0.005) and accumulation of collagen (p less than 0.0001) over time characterized this healing myocardial wound. Histologic examination revealed that the cellular pattern of healing myocardial cryolesions is similar to that of a healing myocardial infarction but with less variability. The authors advocate the use of cardiac cryolesions as a model of experimental myocardial wound healing.

Dynamics of normal and ischemic canine papillary muscles.

This investigation was designed to elucidate the dynamics of the left ventricular (LV) papillary muscles. Miniature tantalum myocardial markers were placed on the tip and base of each papillary muscle in six dogs. Markers were also implanted into the LV myocardium to define two orthogonal equatorial diameters and the long-axis dimension. Two weeks later, after recovery from thoracotomy, markers were visualized by biplane fluoroscopy, and video images were recorded during control conditions, after autonomic blockade, after inotropic stimulation with calcium, after methoxamine infusion (to increase afterload), and after blood volume augmentation (to increase preload). Two days later, radiographic recordings were made before and after occlusion of the left circumflex coronary artery. Computer-aided analysis of the video recordings was used to determine three-dimensional coordinates of the markers. It was found that before circumflex coronary occlusion, the dynamics of both papillary muscles closely mimicked the dynamics of the LV as a whole. The papillary muscles shortened during ejection and lengthened during diastole. Their lengths changed minimally during the isovolumic periods, and this behavior was not altered by any of the interventions except coronary occlusion. During circumflex coronary artery occlusion, the ischemic posterior papillary muscle lengthened during isovolumic contraction and most of ejection and shortened only when LV pressure began to fall. Hence, we believe that previous studies demonstrating papillary muscle lengthening during isovolumic contraction and shortening during isovolumic relaxation may have been confounded by coexistent myocardial ischemia or stunning.

Survey of cardiovascular disease among Africans in the vicinity of the Albert Schweitzer Hospital in 1960.

Abstract In a six month survey at the Albert Schweitzer Hospital near Lambarene, in the Republic of Gabon, West Africa, one half of nearly 800 natives were found to have some type of cardiovascular disease. The rate was over twice as great among patients at the hospital as among residents in neighboring villages made up of seven principal tribal groups represented at the hospital. Rheumatic heart disease was the most common entity with a prevalence rate for mitral stenosis of nearly 6 per cent. This was the only disease found to have a significantly different prevalence in different tribes; the most Europeanized Bantu group had almost none and the largest group, which is non-Bantu, appeared to have the most. Hypertensive and congenital cardiovascular diseases were also common, but coronaryheart disease, so far as we could determine, was practically nonexistent. The reason for this rarity was not possible to determine, but it is evident that diet and many other factors thought to have a causal relationship among these people are quite different from those in the United States. Endomyocardial fibrosis and other cardiopathies uncommon in the United States are quite prevalent in this part of Africa, again with the causative factors unknown. The importance of follow-up study of these people to provide better understanding of these enigmatic diseases is stressed, and the importance of providing surgical correction when indicated for rheumatic and congenital valvular defects is pointed out.

Comparison of aortic root diameter to left ventricular outflow diameter versus body surface area in patients with marfan syndrome.

Aortic root dilation is important in the diagnosis of familial aortic syndromes, such as Marfan syndrome, and an important risk factor for aortic complications, such as dissection or rupture. Transthoracic echocardiography reliably measures the absolute aortic root size; however, the degree of abnormality of the measurement requires correction for the expected normal aortic root size for each patient. The expected normal size is currently predicted according to the body surface area (BSA) and age. However, the correlation between root size and BSA is imperfect, particularly for older patients. A potential exists to improve the diagnosis and treatment of patients with aortic disease, with an improved estimation of normal aortic root size. A reference size derived from within the cardiovascular system has been hypothesized to provide a more direct correlation with the aortic root size. Images from the Stanford echocardiography database were reviewed, and measurements of the aortic root and internal dimensions were performed in a control cohort (n = 150). The measurements were repeated in adult patients with Marfan syndrome (n = 70) on serial echocardiograms (145 total studies reviewed). Of the 150 control patients, excellent correlation was found between the aortic root and left ventricular outflow tract diameters, r(2) = 0.67, and r(2) = 0.34 with BSA (p <0.0001, for both). More importantly, using the left ventricular outflow tract to predict the normal aortic root size, instead of the BSA and age, improved the diagnostic accuracy of aortic root measurements for diagnosing Marfan syndrome. In conclusion, an internal cardiovascular reference, the left ventricular outflow tract diameter, can improve the diagnosis of aortic disease and might provide a better reference for the degree of abnormality.

Transmural Strains in the Ovine Left Ventricular Lateral Wall During Diastolic Filling

Rapid early diastolic left ventricular (LV) filling requires a highly compliant chamber immediately after systole, allowing inflow at low driving pressures. The transmural LV deformations associated with such filling are not completely understood. We sought to characterize regional transmural LV strains during diastole, with focus on early filling, in ovine hearts at 1 week and 8 weeks after myocardial marker implantation. In seven normal sheep hearts, 13 radiopaque markers were inserted to silhouette the LV chamber and a transmural beadset was implanted into the lateral equatorial LV wall to measure transmural strains. Four-dimensional marker dynamics were obtained 1 week and 8 weeks thereafter with biplane videofluoroscopy in closed-chest, anesthetized animals. LV transmural strains in both cardiac and fiber-sheet coordinates were studied from filling onset to the end of early filling (EOEF, 100 ms after filling onset) and at end diastole. At the 8 week study, subepicardial circumferential strain (ECC) had reached its final value already at EOEF, while longitudinal and radial strains were nearly zero at this time. Subepicardial ECC and fiber relengthening (Eff) at EOEF were reduced to 1 compared with 8 weeks after surgery (ECC:0.02+/-0.01 to 0.08+/-0.02 and Eff:0.00+/-0.01 to 0.03+/-0.01, respectively, both P<0.05). Subepicardial ECC during early LV filling was associated primarily with fiber-normal and sheet-normal shears at the 1 week study, but to all three fiber-sheet shears and fiber relengthening at the 8 week study. These changes in LV subepicardial mechanics provide a possible mechanistic basis for regional myocardial lusitropic function, and may add to our understanding of LV myocardial diastolic dysfunction.