Milton Wolpin

A comparison of in vivo methods for rapid reduction of “stage-fright” in the college classroom: A field experiment

Forty-seven speech-anxious college students in introductory speech courses were treated for performance anxiety by participating in one of four conditions: (1) talking and giving speeches in situations that gradually increased in difficulty (successive approximation); (2) performing repeatedly at a difficult speech task ( in vivo flooding); (3) performing repeatedly in a situation calculated to be more difficult than the eventual test situation (implosive practice); and (4) group discussion regarding their anxiety over giving speeches (attention placebo). In three of the four conditions, i.e., successive approximation, implosive practice and attention placebo, half of the subjects were graded by their instructors on their preand post-test speeches. Subjects in all three treatment conditions improved significantly more than those in the placebo condition on both behavioral and self-report measures. In vivo flooding was shown to be significantly more effective than successive approximation and implosive practice on the behavioral measure. Non-graded subjects indicated significantly more change than graded subjects on the self-report measure. Implications for various desensitization procedures and for treatment of speech anxiety are discussed.

VISUAL IMAGERY, VARIOUS MUSCLE STATES AND DESENSITIZATION PROCEDURES

30 Ss were asked to imagine 8 different scenes in each of three conditions: muscle relaxation, muscle tension, and usual muscle state. Degree of muscle tension significantly affected the quality of the imagery. Tension resulted in images which were described as more active, more frightening, more out of proportion, less friendly, less attractive, and as containing louder sounds and poorer solutions. Ss also reported feeling more a part of the scene and less safe in the tension condition. No significant differences were found in the vividness or clarity of imagery among three conditions. Implications for desensitization and related therapies are discussed.

Emotive Imagery and Pain Tolerance

This research considers the relationship between the individual’s imagination, i.e., his or her particular imagetic milieu, and the cognitive evaluation of pain as suffering. Specifically, emotive imagery was manipulated to see if there is a relationship between the imagery being experienced, pain tolerance, and subjective ratings of pain intensity.

The Effect of Role Playing upon Imagery

In the past 15 years there has been a vigorous growth of interest in imagery. Much of this work has been done by clinicians utilizing imagery to modify all sorts of conditions and behaviors, e. g., cancer, phobias, lack of assertiveness, and skin rashes. All of that seems appropriate. It appears more and more that imagery is an important process, and the way in which it functions has marked implications for the way the human functions. At the same time it does appear that the current thrust is consistent with a behavioral orientation, i. e., the primary outcome that the majority of investigators is concerned with is some kind of overt, visible behavior, or readily observable physical condition; imagery remains an independent variable to be manipulated to get a desirable outcome in the behavior, the dependent variable.

Evolving to the Study of Imagery and Aromas

Imagery has fascinated me for many years. The first paper I ever wrote, after my dissertation, was with Roy Hamlin, who was my chair; that was in 1958. He was a man who, in spite of the behavioral Zeitgeist of the times, was open to the study of non-readily observable events, e.g., images that occur during the falling asleep and waking up states—hypnogogic and hypnopompic phenomena and during hypnosis, what we might today call “altered states of consciousness.” We co-authored a paper at that time entitled “Loosening of thought controls and the creative process.” Essentially what we were concerned about were the thoughts and images that come to us when we are in a state other than our wide awake one. It seemed to us, and we supported our thesis by referring to the literature, that the thoughts and images in these other states might be both unusual and of such a nature that they could be utilized to enhance one’s creativity. I guess an instance that intrigued us, and that has been widely reported, was Kekule’s experience, as he was awakening from sleep one day, of seeing the benzene ring projected on the wall in front of him. The solution to a very difficult problem had suddenly come to him in the form of an image and without conscious effort, at that moment, in that direction.

The Experiences Accompanying Olfactory Stimulation

The study reported in this paper reflects a concern that goes back a number of years; that concern is with the way in which imagery varies as a function of the state of the subject and environmental conditions. Wolpin and Hamlin (1958) briefly reviewed some literature which suggested that various states, e.g., falling asleep (hypnogogic), waking up (hypnopompic), and “regression in the service of the ego” (a concept from psychoanalysis), what we might now refer to as “altered states of consciousness,” may play a role in freeing up thinking and the imagination, thus enhancing one’s creative processes. There is considerable anecdotal evidence to support this, one of the most famous being Kekule’s discovery of the benzene ring while in a semi-awake state. In 1974, Wolpin and Kirsch reported on a study in which they found that certain dimensions of imagery may vary as a function of muscle state, e.g., when one’s muscles are relaxed, a calm ocean is visualized and when tensed, a stormy one. Other aspects of the images also changed, e.g., the speed with which things were seen as moving and the friendliness of the scene.

Effects of Olfactory Stimuli and Brief Relaxation Induction on Imagery

Ninety-six introductory psychology students participated in an experiment studying the effects of olfactory stimulation and brief relaxation induction on qualities associated with imagery and perceived relaxation. Each subject imagined 10 images and rated the images on five dimensions. Each subject was in one of two levels of muscle relaxation and one of three olfactory states (2×3 design). ANOVA results indicated that odors which are congruent with images enhance several imagery qualities and odors which are incongruent can decrease these image qualities. The results suggest that congruent olfactory stimuli may be applicable to psychological interventions where increased imagery qualities, affective qualities and perceived relaxation are desired outcomes. Similarly, the results suggest that incongruent odors may be useful in driving away undesirable images when used in interventions when this is desirable.

The American Association for the Study of Mental Imagery

A brief description is given of the American Association for the Study of Mental Imagery and the work of some of those who have been closely associated with it. Reasons for the recent interest in imagery are indicated. Examples are given of some of the concerns that have been considered at the conferences, sponsored by the Association. It is suggested that the Association performs important functions and readers are asked to consider their potential involvement in the organization and ways in which it might further develop.