Miranda Cornelissen

Distraction-induced driving error: An on-road examination of the errors made by distracted and undistracted drivers

This study explored the nature of errors made by drivers when distracted versus not distracted. Participants drove an instrumented vehicle around an urban test route both while distracted (performing a visual detection task) and while not distracted. Two in-vehicle observers recorded the driving errors made, and a range of other data were collected, including driver verbal protocols, forward, cockpit and driver video, and vehicle data (speed, braking, steering wheel angle, etc.). Classification of the errors revealed that drivers were significantly more likely to make errors when distracted; although driving errors were prevalent even when not distracted. Interestingly, the nature of the errors made when distracted did not differ substantially from those made when not distracted, suggesting that, rather than making different types of errors, distracted drivers simply make a greater number of the same error types they make when not distracted. Avenues for broadening our understanding of the relationship between distraction and driving errors are discussed along with the advantages of using a multi-method framework for studying driver behaviour.

Using cognitive work analysis and the strategies analysis diagram to understand variability in road user behaviour at intersections

In this article, an application of cognitive work analysis (CWA), using the strategies analysis diagram (SAD) method, to model performance variability in road transport, is presented. Specifically, the method was used to describe performance variability across four road user groups (drivers, cyclists, motorcyclists and pedestrians) when turning right at an urban signalised intersection. The analysis demonstrated that the method was able to identify a comprehensive range of strategies that road users can potentially use while turning right at an intersection, thereby describing a range of performance variability within intersection systems. Furthermore, the method identified constraints, disturbances, changes in circumstances and other influences on road user performance variability. It is concluded that the CWA/SAD approach was able to describe both the different ways in which activities can be executed and disturbances, situations and constraints that create performance variability. The implications of these findings for road design and intersection safety are discussed along with the benefits and drawbacks of the methodology used. Practitioner Summary: Recently, the strategies analysis diagram was proposed as a method to support the cognitive work analysis framework in modelling performance variability. This article evaluated this method within a complex sociotechnical system, namely road transport. The application provided insight into performance variability across road user groups when turning right at intersections.

More than Meets the Eye: Using Cognitive Work Analysis to Identify Design Requirements for Future Rail Level Crossing Systems

An increasing intensity of operations means that the longstanding safety issue of rail level crossings is likely to become worse in the transport systems of the future. It has been suggested that the failure to prevent collisions may be, in part, due to a lack of systems thinking during design, crash analysis, and countermeasure development. This paper presents a systems analysis of current active rail level crossing systems in Victoria, Australia that was undertaken to identify design requirements to improve safety in future rail level crossing environments. Cognitive work analysis was used to analyse rail level crossing systems using data derived from a range of activities. Overall the analysis identified a range of instances where modification or redesign in line with systems thinking could potentially improve behaviour and safety. A notable finding is that there are opportunities for redesign outside of the physical rail level crossing infrastructure, including improved data systems, in-vehicle warnings and modifications to design processes, standards and guidelines. The implications for future rail level crossing systems are discussed.

Assessing the ‘system’ in safe systems-based road designs: Using cognitive work analysis to evaluate intersection designs

While a safe systems approach has long been acknowledged as the underlying philosophy of contemporary road safety strategies, systemic applications are sparse. This article argues that systems-based methods from the discipline of Ergonomics have a key role to play in road transport design and evaluation. To demonstrate, the Cognitive Work Analysis framework was used to evaluate two road designs - a traditional Melbourne intersection and a cut-through design for future intersections based on road safety safe systems principles. The results demonstrate that, although the cut-through intersection appears different in layout from the traditional intersection, system constraints are not markedly different. Furthermore, the analyses demonstrated that redistribution of constraints in the cut-through intersection resulted in emergent behaviour, which was not anticipated and could prove problematic. Further, based on the lack of understanding of emergent behaviour, similar design induced problems are apparent across both intersections. Specifically, incompatibilities between infrastructure, vehicles and different road users were not dealt with by the proposed design changes. The importance of applying systems methods in the design and evaluation of road transport systems is discussed.

A structured approach to the strategies analysis phase of cognitive work analysis

Cognitive work analysis is a widely applied method within Ergonomics. To date applications have primarily focused on the first two stages of the method – Work Domain Analysis and Control Task Analysis. Compared to the initial stages, the latter stages have been relatively neglected and are consequently not as well developed methodologically. This paper proposes a new approach for the third phase, strategies analysis, which builds upon the output of the earlier phases and provides a formative structured method for identifying potential strategies to complete control tasks. An Apple iPod is used to exemplify and evaluate the proposed approach. Future directions include validation of the approach with more complex systems.

Validating the Strategies Analysis Diagram: Assessing the reliability and validity of a formative method

The Strategies Analysis Diagram (SAD) is a recently developed method to model the range of possible strategies available for activities in complex sociotechnical systems. Previous applications of the new method have shown that it can effectively identify a comprehensive range of strategies available to humans performing activity within a particular system. A recurring criticism of Ergonomics methods is however, that substantive evidence regarding their performance is lacking. For a method to be widely used by other practitioners such evaluations are necessary. This article presents an evaluation of criterion-referenced validity and test-retest reliability of the SAD method when used by novice analysts. The findings show that individual analyst performance was average. However, pooling the individual analyst outputs into a group model increased the reliability and validity of the method. It is concluded that the SAD methods reliability and validity can be assured through the use of a structured process in which analysts first construct an individual model, followed by either another analyst pooling the individual results or a group process pooling individual models into an agreed group model.

Same but different? Understanding road user behaviour at intersections using cognitive work analysis

Collisions at intersections represent a significant road safety issue worldwide but have seen little reduction in casualties and serious injuries over the past decade. This is partly because research and countermeasures have focussed on specific road user types or design components in isolation and has failed to consider the complex interactions between different road users, vehicles and infrastructure and the resulting implications for intersection design. Cognitive work analysis (CWA) is proposed as an appropriate framework to do so; presenting a systemic analysis of the behaviour of drivers, motorcyclists, cyclists and pedestrians, and the interaction with vehicles and infrastructure at intersections. The results indicate that the framework is suited to identifying differences in constraints, functions and behaviour across different road user groups. CWA therefore provides a suitable systems approach to aid the design of a road system that supports a variety of different road users. The implications for road design and future applications are discussed.

How can they do it? A structured approach to the strategies analysis phase of Cognitive Work Analysis

Cognitive work analysis is a widely applied method within Human Factors. To date, applications have mainly focused on the first two stages of the method – Work Domain Analysis and Control Task Analysis. The latter stages have been neglected and are consequently not as well developed methodologically. This paper proposes an approach for strategies analysis, the third phase, which builds upon the output of the earlier phases and provides a structured, repeatable method for identifying potential strategies for completing control tasks. An Apple iPod is used to exemplify and evaluate the proposed approach. Future directions include validation of the approach with more complex systems.

What are they doing: testing a structured cognitive work analysis-based approach for identifying different road user strategies

Cognitive Work Analysis has been widely applied within Human Factors to develop and evaluate complex sociotechnical systems. To date, however research has focused primarily on the first two phases of the framework – Work Domain Analysis and Control Task Analysis. Recently, a new approach, the Strategies Analysis Diagram, has been proposed as a structured approach to the third phase - Strategies Analysis. This paper evaluates the Strategies Analysis Diagram with a complex sociotechnical system, road transport. The results suggest the Strategies Analysis Diagram is capable of describing the range of potential strategies employed when different road users (e.g. drivers, motorcycle riders, cyclists and pedestrians) execute a right hand turn at an intersection. The strategies identified provide what appears to be a comprehensive overview of those employed by different road users. The analysis also identified differences in strategies for a particular function as well as differences in strategies between road user groups.

How Does Motion Influence the Use of Touch Screen In-Vehicle Information Systems?

While the use of in-vehicle touch screen devices is currently common in both military and civilian settings, the effects of motion on the use of such systems has not been researched extensively. This paper presents the findings from a driving simulator study that aimed to explore the influence of motion on task performance when using a touch screen device. The touch screen task was a mock battle management system intended for use in military surface transport vehicles. Twenty participants engaged in a series of battle management system tasks that required both the pull and push of information, for example, reading symbols and entering text. This was done while participants were seated in the front passenger seat in the simulator with an experimenter driving at a constant speed. High motion was simulated by driving along the road edge way, while low motion was simulated by driving along a sealed rural road. Motion profiles confirmed the greater amplitudes in acceleration across multiple axes of movement. The findings illustrate that almost all aspects of battle management system performance were degraded in the high motion condition, although the level of degradation was not as severe as participants gained more experience with the system.