Miren Onaindia

Uncovering Ecosystem Service Bundles through Social Preferences

Ecosystem service assessments have increasingly been used to support environmental management policies, mainly based on biophysical and economic indicators. However, few studies have coped with the social-cultural dimension of ecosystem services, despite being considered a research priority. We examined how ecosystem service bundles and trade-offs emerge from diverging social preferences toward ecosystem services delivered by various types of ecosystems in Spain. We conducted 3,379 direct face-to-face questionnaires in eight different case study sites from 2007 to 2011. Overall, 90.5% of the sampled population recognized the ecosystem’s capacity to deliver services. Formal studies, environmental behavior, and gender variables influenced the probability of people recognizing the ecosystem’s capacity to provide services. The ecosystem services most frequently perceived by people were regulating services; of those, air purification held the greatest importance. However, statistical analysis showed that socio-cultural factors and the conservation management strategy of ecosystems (i.e., National Park, Natural Park, or a non-protected area) have an effect on social preferences toward ecosystem services. Ecosystem service trade-offs and bundles were identified by analyzing social preferences through multivariate analysis (redundancy analysis and hierarchical cluster analysis). We found a clear trade-off among provisioning services (and recreational hunting) versus regulating services and almost all cultural services. We identified three ecosystem service bundles associated with the conservation management strategy and the rural-urban gradient. We conclude that socio-cultural preferences toward ecosystem services can serve as a tool to identify relevant services for people, the factors underlying these social preferences, and emerging ecosystem service bundles and trade-offs.

Chelate-Enhanced Phytoremediation of Soils Polluted with Heavy Metals

In general, hyperaccumulators are low biomass, slow-growing plants. High biomass non-hyperaccumulator plants by themselves are not a valid alternative for phytoextraction as they also have many limitations, such as small root uptake and little root-to-shoot translocation. In this context, chemically-induced phytoextraction (based on the fact that the application of certain chemicals, mostly chelating agents, to the soil significantly enhances metal accumulation by plants) has been proposed as an alternative for the cleaning up of metal polluted soils. But chelate-induced phytoextraction increases the risk of adverse environmental effects due to metal mobilization during extended periods of time. In order to minimize the phytotoxicity and environmental problems associated with the use of chelating agents, nowadays, research is being carried out on the gradual application of small doses of the chelating agent during the growth period. However, EDTA utilization in the future will most likely be limited to ex situconditions where control of the leachates can be achieved. There are other mobilizing agents which are much less harmful to the environment such as citric acid, NTA, and particularly EDDS. Research should also be aimed towards more innovative agronomic practices. Environmentally safe methods of chelate-induced phytoextraction must be developed before steps towards further development and commercialization of this remediation technology are taken. Most importantly, more applied projects in this field are needed to clarify the real potential and risks of this technology.

Seasonal variation in the seed banks of native woodland and coniferous plantations in northern Spain.

The effect of forest type (native woodland and two types of plantation: evergreen coniferous Pinus radiata D. Don and deciduous coniferous Larix kaempferi Lamb.) and season on the composition and density of the soil seed bank were studied in a replicated experiment in the Basque Country, northern Spain. Spring was the season with the largest germinable seed bank and the highest species diversity. The seasonal variation of the seed bank was mainly due to the phenology of the species rather than to the environment (i.e. tree species). The highest number of seeds and species in the seed bank was found in the larch plantation. The greatest similarity among the seed bank of the different forests was due to the presence of broad ranged species. Species belonging to this group were mainly present in the seed bank. The presence of seeds of some native field layer species such as Arum maculatum, Oxalis acetosella, Blechnum spicant (spores) or Danthonia decumbens in the seed bank was favoured by the coniferous plantations. However, most of the field layer species were not found in the seed bank. As the typical woodland species, which do not have a persistent seed bank, are the first ones to disappear from vegetation in coniferous plantations, future management plans should aim to maintain a balance between plantations and natural woodlands and the frequency of cutting, in order to maintain local species diversity.

The Relevance of Local Participatory Scenario Planning for Ecosystem Management Policies in the Basque Country, Northern Spain

As part of the Millennium Ecosystem Assessment in Biscay, Basque Country, we described scenarios for Biscay through 2050 in an integrated and participatory way by downscaling the Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (MA) global scenarios, analyzed how ecosystem services and human well-being might change in a range of plausible futures, identified management strategies for the territory through a backcasting process, and explored the relevance of scenarios to policy making. Our intention was to strengthen the link to policy making and to achieve a real implementation of our research results in ecosystem management policies. We also aimed to provide more insights on how large-scale scenario developments can be translated to the local level. In doing so, we emphasized specific local characteristics and used highly participatory methods focusing on novel elements, such as organizing back-to-back workshops, creating coherent scenarios across scales, using visual elements to present exploratory scenarios, and combining exploratory scenarios with normative backcasting using a World Cafe methodology. The outcome scenarios and management proposals are relevant for decision making and planning processes at local scale and at the same time, they are comparable to other assessment scenarios. This local participatory scenario process and tool for landscape planning is already having a policy impact thanks to the involvement of public administration technicians and policy makers. In the recently renewed strategic policy plan for sustainability of the county, this assessment is considered a high priority. Therefore, for the next steps of the assessment, detailed guidelines for ecosystem management policies are planned.

Grazing Intensity, Aspect, and Slope Effects on Limestone Grassland Structure

Abstract Three treatments were used to evaluate the effect of grazing intensity (ca 30% and 50% herbage removal), aspect (north and south), and slope (< 10% and 10%–30%) on plant community structure of mountain grasslands in the Basque Country (Spain). Plant species richness was not significantly affected by grazing intensity, aspect, or slope. Although plant species composition was similar (Sorensens similarity index = 0.87) between both grazing intensities, species frequency and cover were affected by grazing intensity. Festuca rubra L. and Agrostis capillaris L. were the most common species under both grazing pressures. Moderate grazing intensity (50% herbage removal) plots contained a greater number of plant species with a frequency of more than 50%. The lowest cover for F. rubra corresponded to low grazing intensity, north aspects, and steeper slopes. The lowest cover for A. capillaris was found under low grazing intensity (30% herbage removal) and steeper slopes. Danthonia decumbens (L.) P. C., Potentilla erecta (L.) Räuschal, and Trifolium repens L. were significantly affected by aspect and grazing intensity. Low grazing intensity on sites with northern aspects and steep slopes favored Agrostis curtisii Kerguélen, a species with a low nutritional value. A. capillaris, A. curtisii, P. erecta, and T. repens were sensitive to soil properties and aspect. Nitrogen and K soil concentrations were significantly higher in areas with low grazing intensity, most likely due to greater dead herbage accumulation. Significant (P < 0.05) correlations between plant species and soil pH or P concentration were found in areas with low grazing intensity. Reduction in grazing intensity together with the effect of slope and northern aspect has resulted in changes in plant community structure, leading to increases in forages with lower nutritional value.

Potential use of pine plantations to restore native forests in a highly fragmented river basin

Abstract• In forests, the substitution of broadleaf species by conifers can reduce biodiversity because coniferous forests generally provide less diverse vascular understories than broadleaf forests. However, in some cases, former pine plantations might be useful for restoring native forests. We compared plant species composition on the plot scale in natural beech and mixed oak forests with that in plantations of Pinus radiata. Links between plant diversity and landscape parameters (patch size, fractal dimension and distance to the nearest patch of the same type) were investigated.• The objective of this study was to evaluate the use of pine plantations for restoring native diversity in a zone where native forests are very fragmented.• Similar to oak forests, plant diversity in pine plantations was high, mainly due to the presence of generalist species. Some species characteristic of oak forests also appeared in pine plantations, suggesting the onset of natural forest regeneration.• These results suggest that pine plantations could be used to promote natural regeneration of original oak forests. Moreover, residual native stands should be conserved as important sources of native species and their seeds.Résumé• Dans les forêts, la substitution des espèces feuillues par des conifères peut réduire la biodiversité, car les forêts de conifères ne présentent pas généralement un sous bois aussi diversifié que les forêts feuillues. Toutefois, dans certains cas, les anciennes plantations de pins pourraient être utiles pour la restauration des forêts naturelles. Nous avons comparé la composition des espèces végétales à l’échelle de la parcelle en hêtraie naturelle et chênaie mixte de même que dans les plantations de Pinus radiata. Les liens entre diversité végétale et paramètres du paysage (taille des bouquets, dimension fractale, et distance du plus proche bouquet de même type) ont été étudiés.• L’objectif de cette étude était d’évaluer le recours à des plantations de pin pour le rétablissement de la diversité naturelle dans une zone où les forêts sont très fragmentées.• La diversité végétale des pinèdes, similaire à celle des chênaies, était élevée, principalement en raison de la présence d’espèces généralistes. Certaines espèces caractéristiques des chênaies sont aussi apparues dans les plantations de pins, ce qui suggère l’apparition d’une régénération de la forêt naturelle.• Ces résultats suggèrent que les plantations de pins pourraient être utilisées pour promouvoir la régénération naturelle des chênaies originelles. En outre, les peuplements résiduels originels devraient être conservés comme sources importantes d’espèces naturelles et de leurs graines.

Integrating stakeholders’ demands and scientific knowledge on ecosystem services in landscape planning

The conflict between conservation and timber production is shifting in regions such as Biscay (Basque Country, northern Spain) where planted forests are no longer profitable without public subsidies and environmentalist claim that public subsidies should be reoriented to the regeneration of natural forest. This paper develops an approach that integrates scientific knowledge and stakeholders’ demands to provide decision-making guidelines for the development of new landscape planning strategies while considering ecosystem services. First, a participatory process was conducted to develop a community vision for the region’s sustainable future considering the opportunities and constrains provided by the landscape and its ecosystems. In the participatory process forest management was considered an important driver for the region`s landscape development and forest multi-functionality was envisioned as a feasible attractive alternative. The participatory process identified a knowledge gap on the synergies and trade-offs between biodiversity and carbon storage and how these depend on different forest types. Second, to study the existing synergies and trade-offs between biodiversity and carbon storage and disentangle the identified knowledge gap, a GIS-based research was conducted based on spatially explicit indicators. Our spatial analysis results showed that natural forests’ contribution to biodiversity and carbon storage is higher than that of the plantations with exotic species in the region. The results from the spatial analysis converged with those from the participatory process in the suitability of promoting, where possible and appropriate, natural forest ecosystems restoration. This iterative learning and decision making process is already showing its effectiveness for decision making, with concrete examples of how the results obtained with the applied approach are being included in planning and decision-making processes.

Biomass and aboveground production of four angiosperms in Cantabrian (N. Spain) salt marshes

New data of aboveground biomass and production of four angiosperms over a 12 month period for the Cantabrian Sea salt marshes (Bay of Biscay, N. Spain) are presented. Based on harvest methods, maximum aboveground total biomass values for Spartina maritima (Curtis) Fernald, Spartina alterniflora Loisel, Salicornia ramosissima J. Woods and Halimione portulacoides (L.) Aellen were 628, 1109, 480 and 1267 gm-2, respectively. We conclude that although a slight latitudinal gradient in biomass is revealed in the data compiled with reference to some of the species studied, more work is neccesary in order to assess the potential productivity of these ecosystems on the coasts of Europe and/or to make comparisons with salt marshes of the American coasts. Annual net aerial primary production estimates using Smalleys method were: 296, 1160, 486 and 952 gm-2yr-1, for Spartina maritima, Spartina alterniflora, Salicornia ramosissima and Halimione portulacoides, respectively. These results together with turnover rate estimates point to the lack of vigour of the native S. maritima, while the exotic S. alterniflora, which seems to be spreading along the Cantabrian estuaries, behaves like a veritable pionner throughout the low marshes in this region.

Efficacy of Management Policies on Protection and Recovery of Natural Ecosystems in the Urdaibai Biosphere Reserve

ABSTRACT: Knowledge of landscape patterns and dynamics is essential for land use planners and natural resources managers. They need to know how landscapes have changed in order to determine the consequences and efficacy of the management policies and implement future decision-making. This study characterized the landscape of the Urdaibai Biosphere Reserve, which has been affected by the introduction of exotic tree species since the beginning of the 20th century. We examined the dynamics of this landscape between 1991 and 2009 and the consequences of having been declared a UNESCO Biosphere Reserve in 1984. Most of the Urdaibai Biosphere Reserve potential vegetation (80%) is mixed-oak (Quercus robur L.) forest, but, currently, this forest is found in only 6.5% of the area. Most of the current vegetation (54%) comprises Pinus radiata and Eucalyptus sp. plantations. Over the period studied, land use had changed in only 11.8% of the area. Nearly 30% of the change was the replacement of traditional grasslands, crops, and heathlands by P. radiata and Eucalyptus sp. plantations. However, 22% of the change had reflected a recovery of the native vegetation, namely mixed-oak and Cantabrian evergreen-oak (Quercus ilex subsp. Ilex) forest, coastal sandy areas, or broad-leaf plantations. This recovery of the native vegetation has countered the tendency towards landscape degradation observed since 1957. Thus, despite the small change described, the first effects of conservation and environmental recovery policies can be detected. Nevertheless, there remains much to be done for recovering the natural ecosystem; the most difficult obstacles include the fact that most of the land is privately owned and an existence of the administrative complexity gives rise to problems that exist between different Administrations.

At which spatial scale are plant species composition and diversity affected in beech forests

Abstract• ContextLandscape structure is crucial for forest conservation in regions where the natural forest is fragmented. Practical conservation is currently shifting from local stands to a landscape perspective, although few studies have tested the relative effects of different spatial scales on plant species composition and diversity in forests.• MethodsWe studied vascular plants and 17 predictor variables related to landscape (i.e. patch size or the surrounding landscape matrix) and stand conditions (i.e. soil pH and stand structure) in 50 semi-natural beech (Fagus sylvatica L.) forests in the northern Iberian Peninsula.• AimsWe analysed the effect of landscape heterogeneity and stand-associated environmental conditions on plant species composition and diversity. Moreover, we studied the influence of these scales on the diversity of different life forms.• ResultsPlant species composition and diversity responded primarily to suitable habitat proportions in the surrounding landscape and secondarily to soil pH. The response to these factors differed among life forms. Species diversity, especially tree and shrub diversity, increased with increases in the proportion of ecologically similar habitat in the surrounding landscape (forests dominated by Quercus spp.). Species diversity (primarily herb diversity) also increased with increasing soil pH.• ConclusionFuture landscape management should seek to produce a heterogeneous matrix comprising patches of natural, unmanaged and managed deciduous forest and including other traditional uses and forest plantations.