Miriam Wald

Mitogenic effect of erythropoietin on neonatal rat cardiomyocytes: Signal transduction pathways

The mitogenic effect of recombinant human erythropoietin (rHuEpo) on primary cultures of neonatal rat cardiac myocytes was observed. rHuEpo triggered a dose‐dependent increase in myocyte proliferation. The hormone effect over optimally grown control culture 1 day after addition was maximum with 0.5 U/ml and was inhibited with anti‐rHuEpo. Inhibitors of enzymatic pathways known to be involved in the cytokines intracellular mechanism such as genistein (tyrosine kinase inhibitor), 2‐nitro‐4‐carboxiphenyl‐N,N‐diphenylcarbamate (phospholipase C [PLC] inhibitor), and 1‐(5‐isoquinolinylsufonyl)‐2‐methyl‐piperazine (protein kinase C [PKC] inhibitor) prevented the mitogenic action of rHuEpo. Also the inhibition of Na+‐K+‐ATPase activity by ouabain blunted the stimulatory action of rHuEpo on cell proliferation. The mitogenic action of the hormone was correlated with cardiac membrane paranitrophenilphosphatase (pNPPase) and PKC activity, since concentrations of rHuEpo that stimulate DNA synthesis increased pNPPase and PKC activity. Moreover, the enzymatic inhibition of tyrosine kinase, PLC, and PKC attenuated the stimulatory action of rHuEpo upon cardiac pNPPase activity. In this paper we demonstrate a non‐hematopoietic action of rHuEpo showing both mitogenic and enzymatic effect upon primary myocyte cell culture and on pNPPase activity of neonatal rat heart. These effects are related to the capacity of rHuEpo to stimulate Na+‐K+‐ATPase activity and appear to be secondary to the activation of tyrosine kinase and PKC, indicating that in the rHuEpo mediated mitogenic action on cardiomyocytes involves the activation of the same enzymatic pathways that have been described by other cytokines in different tissues.

Impaired immune responses in streptozotocin-induced type I diabetes in mice. Involvement of high glucose

Diabetes is widely believed to predispose to serious infections. However, the mechanisms linking diabetes and immunosuppression are not well defined. One potential mediator of the altered defence mechanisms is hyperglycaemia. It has been identified as the main factor contributing to the development of diseases associated with diabetes mellitus. In this study we analyse the immune response in diabetes and the direct effect of hyperglycaemia on T and B lymphocyte reactivity. Diabetes induced an early decrease in IgG levels in the secondary response. However, both primary responses against a T‐cell‐dependent or independent antigen were affected after 6 months of diabetes induction. T‐ and B‐ cell proliferation was only decreased at this time. To gain insight into the potential mechanisms involved, we evaluated the influence of hyperglycaemia over the immune response. Pre‐incubation of lymph node and spleen cells in a high glucose (HG) containing medium led to a significant time‐ and dose‐dependent decrease in T‐ and B‐cell proliferation. This effect was associated with the presence of HG‐derived supernatants. Still viable cells after HG exposition were able to improve their proliferative response when cultured with the mitogen in a fresh standard medium. HG diminished cell viability, increased apoptosis and induced oxidative stress in lymphocytes. These results indicate that HG concentrations can directly affect lymphoid cell growth. An increase in oxidative stress would be implicated in this deleterious effect. The possibility that prolonged exposure to pathologically HG concentrations would result in the immunosuppressive state observed in diabetes is also discussed.

Dehydroepiandrosterone and metformin regulate proliferation of murine T lymphocytes

The aim of the present study was to assess the effect of dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA: 10u2003µM) and metformin (10u2003µM and 100u2003µM) in regulating proliferation of cultured T lymphocytes. T cells were isolated from lymph nodes of prepuberal BALB/c mice. We found that DHEA, metformin and DHEAu2003+u2003metformin added to the incubation media diminished proliferation of T cells. The inhibition by DHEA was higher than that produced by metformin, while the combined treatment showed a synergistic action that allowed us to speculate distinct regulatory pathways. This was supported later by other findings in which the addition of DHEA to the incubation media did not modify T lymphocyte viability, while treatment with metformin and DHEAu2003+u2003metformin diminished cellular viability and increased both early and late apoptosis. Moreover, DHEA diminished the content of the anti‐oxidant molecule glutathione (GSH), whereas M and DHEAu2003+u2003metformin increased GSH levels and diminished lipid peroxidation. We conclude that DHEA and metformin diminish proliferation of T cells through different pathways and that not only the increase, but also the decrease of oxidative stress inhibited proliferation of T cells, i.e. a minimal status of oxidative stress, is necessary to trigger cellular response.

Long-term treatment with fluoxetine associates with peripheral effects on rat vas deferens contractility

The aim of this work was to study whether long-term treatment with fluoxetine could induce peripheral effects by modifying vas deferens contractile activity. For this purpose the contractile response to NE, and 5-HT of vas deferens isolated from male Wistar rats that received fluoxetine 10 mg/kg/day i.p., during 21 days, was studied using the isolated organ bath technique. Results show that vas deferens of treated rats presented spontaneous activity, an effect that was abolished by prazosin and isoproterenol and that was not affected by nitroprusside or indomethacin. In addition, fluoxetine did not modify the response to calcium suggesting that spontaneous activity was not a consequence of an abnormal calcium movement. Fluoxetine induced a significant increase in the response of vas deferens to 5-HT and to low NE concentrations while NE maximal effect was unaffected. Fluoxetine treatment did not modify the binding parameters of [3H]-prazosin to vas deferens. It is concluded that long-term treatment with fluoxetine modifies vas deferens contractile activity. This effect could be the result of an alteration of adrenergic neurotransmission and could account for some of the untoward effects observed during clinical course with fluoxetine.

Altered β-adrenoceptor function associated to protein kinase C activation in hyperproliferative T lymphocytes

beta-Adrenoceptor (betaAR) expression and function as well as its modulation via intracellular transduction signals, were analyzed on the T cell lymphoma BW5147. Independently to the kinetic of proliferation and relative to the number of receptors displayed in normal T lymphocytes, BW5147 cells displayed a decreased number of betaAR, uncoupled to adenylate cyclase, but coupled to protein kinase C stimulation. This last effect was impaired by a beta-antagonist and by blockers of the enzymatic pathways involved in T lymphocyte proliferation, inducing a recovery of betaAR sites. Down-regulation of betaAR would implicate the loss of a negative neuroimmune control mechanism for lymphocyte proliferation. The coupling of the remaining sites to a positive signal for cellular activation, would contribute to establish an hyperproliferative state.

Immune alterations induced by chronic noise exposure: Comparison with restraint stress in BALB/c and C57Bl/6 mice

Abstract Exposure to loud noise levels represents a problem in all regions of the world. Noise exposure is known to affect auditory structures in living organisms. However, it should not be ignored that many of the effects of noise are extra-auditory. In particular, it has been proposed that noise could affect immune system similarly to other stressors. Nevertheless, only a few studies so far have investigated the effects of noise on the immune function. The aim of the present work was to investigate the effect of chronic (2 weeks) noise (95–97u2009dBA) exposure on immune responses in BALB/c and C57 mice. To ascertain if the effect of noise is similar to other psychological stressors, the effect of chronic restraint—applied for the same time—on immune response was also analyzed. It was found that chronic noise impaired immune-related end-points in vivo and ex vivo depending on the strain used. Noise, but not restraint, affected C57Bl/6 mouse T-cell-dependent antibody production and ex vivo stimulated T-cell proliferation, but had no effect on these parameters in BALB/c mice or their cells. In fact, none of the stressors altered T-cell responses associated with the BALB/c mice. Further, noise exposure induced a decrease in corticosterone and catecholamines levels in BALB/c mice. In contrast, no differences were seen in these parameters for those BALB/c mice under restraint or for that matter C57Bl/6 mice exposed to restraint or noise. The results of these studies indicate that noise could seriously affect immune responses in susceptible individuals. In addition, it may also be concluded that noise possibility should not be considered a classic stressor.

Possible involvement of stress hormones and hyperglycaemia in chronic mild stress-induced impairment of immune functions in diabetic mice.

Stress, an important aspect of modern life, has long been associated with an altered homeostatic state. Little is known about the effect of the life stress on the outcome of diabetes mellitus, especially related to the higher risk of infections. Here, we evaluate the effects of chronic mild stress (CMS) exposure on the evolution of type I diabetes induced by streptozotocin administration in BALB/c mice. Exposure of diabetic mice to CMS resulted in a significant reduction of survival and a sustained increase in blood glucose values. Concerning the immune response, chronic stress had a differential effect in mice with diabetes with respect to controls, showing a marked decrease in both T- and B-cell proliferation. No correlation was found between splenic catecholamine or circulating corticosterone levels and the proliferative response. However, a significant negative correlation was found between glucose levels and concanavalin A- and lipopolysaccharide-stimulated proliferative responses of T and B cells. A positive correlation between blood glucose and splenic catecholamine concentrations was found in diabetic mice but not in controls subjected to CMS. Hence, the present report shows that diabetic mice show a worse performance in immune function after stress exposure, pointing to the importance of considering life stress as a risk factor for patients with diabetes.

Participation of Nitric Oxide and Cyclic GMP in the Supersensitivity of Acute Diabetic Rat Myocardium by Cholinergic Stimuli

The purpose of this study was to explore the pharmacological and biochemical mechanisms involved in diabetic cardiomyopathy, with particular interest in the abnormal function of cholinergic neurotransmission at the onset of the pathology. The muscarinic acethylcholine agonist carbachol showed a negative inotropic response on both normal and diabetic isolated atria, but the latter showed a supersensitive response. No changes were found in muscarinic acethylcholine receptor (mAChR) expression. Measurements of mAChR-associated second messengers indicated no significant differences between normal and diabetic rat atria in the stimulatory effect of carbachol on protein kinase C activity and the production of inositol phosphates, or in the inhibitory effect induced by carbachol on cyclic AMP (cAMP) production. On the contrary, nitric oxide (NO) synthase activity and cyclic GMP production were higher in diabetic cardiac preparations than in normal ones. Moreover, in diabetic atria, nitric oxide synthase and guanylate cyclase inhibitors shifted the carbachol concentration-response curve on contractility to the right, reaching values similar to those of normal atria. These results suggest an early alteration in the mACh system during the diabetic state, associated with increased production of nitric oxide and cyclic GMP (cGMP). This, in turn, could increase the biological mechanical activity of the mAChR agonist, inducing in this way a higher pharmacological response, without changes in mAChR expression.

Differential effect of hyperglycaemia on the immune response in an experimental model of diabetes in BALB/cByJ and C57Bl/6J mice: participation of oxidative stress

Diabetes is associated with an increased risk of death from infectious disease. Hyperglycaemia has been identified as the main factor contributing to the development of diseases associated with diabetes mellitus. However, experimental evidence indicates individual susceptibility to develop complications of diabetes. In this context, the aim of this work was to study the immune response in a streptozotocin‐induced type 1 diabetes in two mouse strains: BALB/cByJ and C57Bl/6J. The participation of hyperglycaemia and oxidative stress was also analysed. Diabetic BALB/cByJ mice showed a decrease in both the in‐vivo and in‐vitro immune responses, whereas diabetic C57Bl/6J mice had higher blood glucose but exhibited no impairment of the immune response. The influence of hyperglycaemia over the immune response was evaluated by preincubation of lymphocytes from normal mice in a high glucose‐containing medium. T and B cells from BALB/cByJ mice showed a decrease in cell viability and mitogen‐stimulated proliferation and an increase in apoptosis induction. An increase in oxidative stress was implicated in this deleterious effect. These parameters were not affected in the T and B lymphocytes from C57Bl/6J mice. In conclusion, BALB/cByJ mice were sensitive to the deleterious effect of hyperglycaemia, while C57BL/6J were resistant. Although an extrapolation of these results to clinical conditions must be handled with caution, these results highlight the need to contemplate the genetic background to establish models to study the deleterious effect of diabetes in order to understand phenotypical variations that are of clinical importance in the treatment of patients.