Miron Kumar Bhowmik

Caught between Cultures: Case Study of an "Out of School" Ethnic Minority Student in Hong Kong.

Abstract This paper reports a case study on Maneesha Rai, a Nepalese girl living in Hong Kong and an “out of school” student. Based on in-depth interviews, a case was constructed of her previous school days and current “out of school” days. These provided a vivid picture of her life and several themes were created using schema analysis that help explain the reasons for her “dropping out” of school after Form Five. It has been common to attribute school failure for ethnic minority students in Hong Kong to problems with Chinese language education. Yet Maneesha’s case study shows that her experience of failure in other subjects such as Mathematics and Science contributed to her lack of successful schooling. Maneesha’s school failure was more than simply a consequence of academic failure. Rather, there were many other interrelated factors such as peer and community factors, dropout history in the family, racism, differences in schooling culture found that contributed to her school failure. In addition, Maneesha, like many of her ethnic minority friends, enjoyed the freedom afforded her in Hong Kong, but it seemed such freedom also meant inadequate attention from her teachers.

‘Out of School’ Ethnic Minority Young People in Hong Kong

............................................................................................................................. IV ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS.................................................................................................. VIII TABLE OF CONTENTS ......................................................................................................... IX LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS ................................................................................................. XX LIST OF TABLES ................................................................................................................ XXII LIST OF PHOTOS ............................................................................................................ XXIV PUBLICATIONS ................................................................................................................. XXV CONFERENCE PAPERS ................................................................................................. XXVI CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION .............................................................................................. 1 1.1 FOCUS OF THE CHAPTER.............................................................................................. 2 1.2 BACKGROUND ............................................................................................................ 2 1.3 AIMS AND OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY ......................................................................... 3 1.4 RESEARCH QUESTIONS ................................................................................................ 7 1.5 RATIONALE FOR THE STUDY ........................................................................................ 8 1.5.1 Gap in literature ......................................................................................................... 8 1.5.2 Access and equity in education ................................................................................. 10 1.5.2.1 Educational Rights........................................................................................................... 10 1.5.2.2 Equity in education .......................................................................................................... 12 1.5.3 Protection against discrimination ............................................................................ 13 1.5.4 The ‘no loser’ principle of Hong Kong’s education reform ...................................... 15 1.5.5 New theoretical insights ........................................................................................... 17 1.5.6 Revisiting ‘Education for All’ ................................................................................... 18 1.6 FLOW OF THESIS CHAPTERS ...................................................................................... 19 1.7 CONCLUSION ............................................................................................................ 20 The Hong Kong Institute of Education Library For private study or research only. Not for publication or further reproduction. x CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW ................................................................................ 21 2.1 FOCUS OF THE CHAPTER............................................................................................ 21 2.2 ETHNIC DIVERSITY, MULTICULTURALISM, IMMIGRATION AND EDUCATIONAL OUTCOMES: SOME THEORETICAL CONCERNS .............................................................................................. 22 2.3 THE ETHNIC MINORITY POPULATION IN HONG KONG ................................................ 30 2.4 MULTICULTURAL HONG KONG .......................................................................................... 36 2.5 THE EDUCATION PROVISION FOR ETHNIC MINORITY STUDENTS IN HONG KONG: ISSUES AND CHALLENGES ........................................................................................................................... 41 2.5.1 The education for ethnic minorities in Hong Kong .................................................. 41 2.5.2 Education of South Asian ethnic minority groups in Hong Kong ............................. 43 2.5.3 Equal Opportunities Commission’s ‘Education for All’ report ................................. 45 2.5.4 United Nation’s concerns about the education provision for ethnic minority students in Hong Kong .................................................................................................................... 49 2.5.5 Legal implications of Education for ethnic minority children in Hong Kong........... 50 2.5.6 South Asian ethnic minority students’ educational experiences and their identity construction ....................................................................................................................... 52 2.5.7 A critical review of the issues and challenges of education provision for ethnic minority students ............................................................................................................... 53 2.5.7.1 Myopic views of the problem .......................................................................................... 54 2.5.7.2 Admissions ...................................................................................................................... 55 2.5.7.3 Chinese language ............................................................................................................. 56 2.5.7.4 Assessment ...................................................................................................................... 60 2.5.7.5 Curriculum ...................................................................................................................... 61 2.5.7.6 Teaching .......................................................................................................................... 62 2.5.7.7 Resource support ............................................................................................................. 62 2.5.7.8 Supervision and monitoring ............................................................................................. 63 2.5.7.9 Overall policy towards multicultural education in Hong Kong ....................................... 63 2.5.7.10 The efficiency of overall support measures ................................................................... 64 2.6 ‘OUT OF SCHOOL’ ISSUE FOR ETHNIC MINORITIES IN HONG KONG ..................................... 68 2.7 CONCLUSION ..................................................................................................................... 70 CHAPTER 3: THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK .................................................................. 72 3.1 FOCUS OF THE CHAPTER .................................................................................................... 72 3.2 CITIZENSHIP DISCOURSE .................................................................................................... 74 3.2.1 Citizenship and immigration .................................................................................... 74 The Hong Kong Institute of Education Library For private study or research only. Not for publication or further reproduction. xi 3.2.2 Temporary migrants, partial citizenship and hypermigration .................................. 76 3.3 MIGRATION, MINORITIES AND EDUCATION: UNDERSTANDING CULTURE ............................. 77 3.4 ‘OUT OF SCHOOL’ CONSTRUCT ........................................................................................... 78 3.4.1 Five dimensions of exclusion .................................................................................... 79 3.4.2 Seven zones of exclusion ........................................................................................... 80 3.4.3 Adapted extension of the framework ......................................................................... 80 3.5 SCHOOL FAILURE IN THE DEVELOPED CONTEXT ................................................................. 82 3.6 SCHOOL FAILURE IN THE DEVELOPING CONTEXT ............................................................... 84 3.7 CONCLUSION ..................................................................................................................... 86 CHAPTER 4: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY AND METHODS ..................................... 88 4.1 FOCUS OF THE CHAPTER .................................................................................................... 88 4.2 RESEARCH DESIGN ............................................................................................................ 88 4.3 RESEARCH PARADIGM ....................................................................................................... 94 4.4 RESEARCH METHODS......................................................................................................... 98 4.5 RESEARCH PARTICIPANTS ................................................................................................ 100 4.5.1 Schools ................................................................................................................... 106 4.5.2 ‘Out of school’ research participants ..................................................................... 107 4.5.3 Other participants .................................................................................................. 109 4.6 DATA COLLECTION .......................................................................................................... 110 4.7 DATA ANALYSIS ............................................................................................................... 115 4.8 RESEARCH ETHICS ........................................................................................................... 120 4.9 REFLEXIVITY ................................................................................................................... 121 4.9.1 My motivation for the study ....................

Education for all – but not Hong Kong’s ethnic minority students

Abstract School participation rates in Hong Kong are acknowledged to be high but not always for the city’s ethnic minority students. Case study was used to portray the ‘out of school’ phenomenon for ethnic minority students at a secondary school in Hong Kong through the experiences of one such ethnic minority student. Morshed, a Pakistani student, participated with the researchers in an unstructured in-depth interview. In addition, interviews were also conducted with the principal, two teachers, and one support staff from the school. The study showed the complex interaction of school contexts and personal life issues that influenced Morshed’s dropping out of school. Implications are drawn for providing better school support that can facilitate more positive schooling experiences for Hong Kong’s ethnic minority students.

Dropout Ethnic Minority Young People

The case studies of six ethnic minority young people who had dropped out of their schooling are presented. Three were Nepalese, two were Pakistani and one was Bangladeshi. None of them were born in Hong Kong. Four moved to Hong Kong from their home country during their primary schooling and two when they were at secondary school. Four of the participants were interviewed twice and two were once to ascertain their background information and family, their schooling, and life experiences in Hong Kong. Two of the young people were also observed in their workplaces. Their interviews are presented under themes. Common themes presented are reasons for dropping out of school, job satisfaction and future plans. Reasons are related to learning Chinese, over-age, racism, poor academic achievement, behavioural problem, harassment, employment, illness, dropout history in the family, parental factors, school factors, and peer and community factors. The case studies are further explored in a cross case analysis in Chap. 9.

Acculturative stress and coping strategies among Mainland Chinese university students in Hong Kong: A qualitative inquiry

Despite the growing population of Mainland Chinese students at the local government-funded universities in Hong Kong, little is known about their acculturation experiences and psychosocial adjustment. Drawing on an acculturation framework (Berry, 2003) and theories of coping (Folkman, 1984), resilience (Masten, 2001), and socioecological processes (Bronfenbrenner & Morris, 2006), this article provides an in-depth account of acculturative stress and coping behaviors experienced by Mainland Chinese university students in Hong Kong. Using qualitative research methods, we conducted seven focus groups with a total of 32 Mainland Chinese students from a public university in Hong Kong over a 3-month period. Analytic strategy included identifying the unit of analysis, coding, sorting code, checking code, and creating salient themes. Findings suggested that Mainland Chinese university students faced acculturative stress stemming from “language barriers,” “prejudice and discrimination,” “cultural differences,” and “transport, food, and accommodation.” The study also found that the participants used a number of adaptive and maladaptive coping strategies in the face of acculturative stress. As an extension of this research, future studies should examine the subtle difference between a subculture (Hong Kong) and its mother culture (Mainland China) and how that affects acculturative stress. Implications of these findings are discussed at the levels of theory, policy, and practice.

A Young Girl Who Has Never Been to School

This chapter reflects on a 5 year old Bangladeshi girl and the reasons surrounding her not attending kindergarten in Hong Kong. Shormin was interviewed with her elder sister Romana and parents. Her father was studying for a PhD at a Hong Kong university and, therefore, because he was living on a student visa, not eligible to apply for the government’s pre-primary education voucher scheme. Shormin’s parents were unable to afford kindergarten fees, particularly as they were already paying for Romana’s monthly transportation costs to and from school. Their only solution, therefore, was to home tutor Shormin. Romana also provided support to Shormin through worksheets she had prepared for her in English. An NGO additionally provided support to her three times a week, however, Shormin found communication with her peers difficult due to speaking a different home language of Bangla. Psychological issues and pressures are presented for Shormin and her parents, for example, her lack of exposure to socialization and communication skills with her peers. Hong Kong’s immigration laws were considered racially discriminatory according to Shormin’s father. This case study is further explored in the cross case analysis presented in Chap. 9.

‘Out of School’ Ethnic Minority Young People: Multiple Data Sources, Their Meaning, and Extent of the ‘Out of School’ Phenomenon

This chapter draws on census data, national and international educational statistics reports, and three schools enrolment figures to understand the extent of ‘out of school’ ethnic minority young people in Hong Kong. Inconsistencies exist within reported statistics including census and Education Bureau (EDB) datasets. Employing the ‘Five Dimensions of Exclusion’ (UNICEF and the UNESCO Institute for Statistics, All children in school by 2015, global initiative on out-of-school children. UIS, Montreal, 2010) and CREATE’s ‘Seven Zones of Exclusion’ (Lewin K, Improving access, equity and transitions in education: creating a research agenda. CREATE pathways to access research monograph, no. 1. University of Sussex, Brighton, 2007), Hong Kong education was analysed regarding ‘out of school’ ethnic minority young people. School attendance rate analyses indicated the issue could be 25 % at upper secondary and above 85 % by post-secondary. More consistent and better quality data are needed to ascertain the extent of the ‘out of school’ phenomenon for both Chinese and ethnic minority young people. School enrolment and relevant interview data provided rich insights confirming the phenomenon was very much prevalent. Ethnic minority students appeared to drop out throughout the primary and secondary levels, with the end of Form Three being the first critical point. New arrival ethnic minority students were considered to drop out more than Hong Kong born students. Finally, Pakistani and Nepalese young people dropped out more than other ethnic minorities and gender-wise ethnic minority boys more so than girls.

Understanding ‘Out of School’ Issues for Ethnic Minority Young People in Hong Kong

The findings of Chaps. 4, 5, 6, 7, and 8 are summarized with comprehensive and critical discussion, referencing the theoretical frameworks and wider literature utilized in this research. For issues that could not be easily explained, broader frameworks and wider literature were drawn upon. Implications for Hong Kong education policy, practice and theory, and how these related to the findings are discussed. The chapter starts with the extent of ‘out of school’ ethnic minority young people in Hong Kong and implications. The reasons for ethnic minority young people being ‘out of school’ are organized and discussed according to factors identified with case study participants and interviews with other stakeholders. Factors are organized into 17 themes: low academic achievement; over-age and retention or repetition; low education aspiration; attendance issue; Chinese language; behavioral problems; employment; involvement with gangs; health issues; school changes or student mobility; peer factors; family factors; school factors; community factors; differences of culture in education; immigration and citizenship; and racism. Family factors and school factors are further sub-divided. For the other stakeholders, special educational needs and stereotypes were factors that also identified. Gender and school failure, and implications are discussed. Finally, the life of ethnic minority young people in Hong Kong and implications are reported.

Other Stakeholders’ Views About the ‘Out of School’ Issue for Ethnic Minority Young People

Interview data with three ethnic minority community leaders from Nepalese, Pakistani and Bangladeshi communities in Hong Kong; two government officials; one teacher who taught secondary level ethnic minority students; and one NGO professional, were drawn upon to understand perspectives on the magnitude of the ‘out of school’ phenomenon for ethnic minority young people, reasons, and the ‘out of school’ life of ethnic minority young people. Issues included being caught in a vicious cycle with no upward social mobility due to not possessing a university degree and, therefore, being unemployable in Hong Kong. Similarly to factors discussed by students, parents and school teachers (Chaps. 4, 5, 6, and 7), these interviewees considered poor academic achievement; inadequate school provision; low educational aspirations; Chinese language concerns (including a gap existing between achieved Chinese qualification and that required for higher education and employment); behavioural problems; racism; and ethnic minority stereotypes to be reasons for students dropping ‘out of school’. Some primary and secondary school dropouts younger than 15 usually return to school; some are placed in NGOs or vocational bridging courses to allow for an alternative vocational path. Alternatively, others would seek employment if over 15 or apply to study on vocational courses.

Ethnic Minority Students at Risk of Dropping Out

Four students at risk of dropping out of their schooling are profiled. All were Pakistani with three born in Hong Kong, and one in Pakistan, who subsequently moved to Hong Kong in his late primary years. At the time of their interview, one student was studying in primary school and the others in secondary school. The primary school student was over-aged and not offered an age-specific grade level when he was admitted to the school. Their lives inside and outside of school are depicted. The case studies report information on their background, schooling, a typical day, and their future plan. Interview data from the teachers who considered them to potentially be at risk of dropping out of school are also included. Factors contributing to their risk of dropping out were at the individual, family and school levels. The individual level included attendance and low academic issues. The family level included poverty and at the school level, low expectations of the teachers towards them. Two factors similarly remarked on amongst the four students were their struggle in learning Chinese and most had experienced some form of racism. The case studies are further explored in a cross case analysis in Chap. 9.