Misa Izuhara

Care and inheritance: Japanese and English perspectives on the ‘generational contract’

This article explores the changing nature and patterns of the ‘generational contract’, with particular reference to the exchange of nursing care and housing assets between older parents and their adult children. Inheritance practices and attitudes are used to examine the ways in which socio-economic, demographic and policy changes have recently altered the conventional arrangements in Japanese society. The previously defined ‘generational contract’ is now ambiguous, and the expectations and obligations of different family members are fragmented. This article also discusses whether such practices in Japan are unique and the ways in which they differ from the English situation. Family obligations and inheritance have been more explicitly connected in the Japanese social and legal systems, while in England there is neither legal obligation to support older parents nor any constraint on inheritance. This article elucidates the similarities and differences in the patterns of inheritance and thus the exchange models between care and inheritance in the two societies.

Negotiating Family Support? The 'Generational Contract' between long-term Care and Inheritance

Using qualitative interviews with 54 older people, this article explores the changing patterns of the ‘generational contract’ in contemporary Britain and Japan. In particular, this article presents a cross-national comparison concerning the exchange of housing assets and long-term care between older parents and their adult children in the context of different laws, cultures, social policy and housing markets. The concepts of intergenerational solidarity, reciprocity and ambivalence were used to aid the analysis of the household data. The research found there were significant cross-national differences in areas such as autonomy and decision-making process regarding bequests, and choice of beneficiaries. In both societies, however, no strong link was found between bequest motives and family support for long-term care. The model of intergenerational solidarity (willingness to help children) thus appeared to override the reciprocal dimension of the ‘generational contract’.

Social Inequality under a New Social Contract: Long-term Care in Japan

The 1990s saw the beginning of new developments in the social policy agenda of Japan. A combination of further cuts in social expenditure and increases in financial resources through various means has become inevitable in response to the increasing cost burden of an ageing society, the prolonged recession and changes in the Japanese family. In this context, “kaigo hoken” (long-term care insurance) was introduced in 2000 to increase revenue and fill the gap vacated by the family. The scheme introduced a different concept to the public: that long-term care was no longer “expected’’ from the family or “allocated” by the state, but has become part of a “social contract” based upon a system of mandatory contributions, uniform entitlements and consumer choice. This paper first explores the role of the new scheme in creating social inequalities among individuals (and families). A panel survey is used to highlight different patterns of care provision and the varying degree of financial pressure among different income groups. Second, based on qualitative research, the paper examines how the new scheme has transformed the relationship between older people and their families who have played a central role in this arena. The scheme has consequently divided “traditional” families and their liberal counterparts, as a result of care work being “commodified”. It is apparent that this scheme has not only responded to fill the existing care gap but may also help accelerate the changes that have been taking place for the last two decades.

Home ownership and economic change in Japan

The state of the residential property market is an important issue for both the macro economy and for individual households in Japan. Home ownership is the main pillar of housing policy and as a very expensive commodity it has been deeply implicated in the economic problems of the 1990s. This paper considers the role of home ownership within the broader context of the post-war Japanese social structure. The core of the paper is an assessment of the impact of the recent period of financial turbulence on the home ownership sector. This discussion is set within the broader context of the new pressures emerging around the institutional arrangements which have sustained the Japanese social system.

Changing Family Tradition: Housing Choices and Constraints for Older People in Japan

The primary objective of this paper is to provide a qualitative analysis of the transformations in the housing choices and living arrangements of older people in Japan. The underlying causes and issues of changing intergenerational linkages were explored in the context of the development of the Japanese welfare state. The fieldwork was conducted in Kitakyushu, Japan, through a series of interviews with older women. The informants were selected from three different welfare sectors - the state, the market, and the family - in order to make a clear distinction among people in terms of their socio-economic status, housing and living arrangements, and degree of family relations. The results of the analysis highlight older peoples preference for more independent living with changing family patterns and ideology. It is, however, still constrained by the limited housing alternatives and underdeveloped social services. The paper also reveals the extent of poverty among single women in old age.

The Shaping of Housing Histories in Shanghai

During the last half century or so, China has probably experienced more dramatic and fundamental changes than most other societies. Housing and family life have been embedded in a series of far-reaching societal changes, notably the communist victory of 1949, the period of the Cultural Revolution and the more recent drive towards a more market oriented society, with housing reforms at the forefront. This paper examines the way in which housing histories among families in Shanghai were shaped by these events and by their interaction with specific intergenerational dynamics. The paper draws on research carried out in Shanghai in 2008 which involved in-depth interviews with individual members of three linked generations. The research provides a unique account of family housing histories over three generations against a particularly turbulent backcloth.

A life-time of inequality: a structural analysis of housing careers and issues facing older private tenants

While the majority of households in England have become homeowners at the turn of the 21st century, some older people still struggle on low incomes in the less privileged sector of private renting. This article first explores the intertwining of the history of housing policy and provision with the lifecourse histories of individuals, seeking to describe the reasons why some older people are in the private rented sector. It then presents research findings that revealed how some older private tenants experienced different types and degrees of harassment and abuse by their landlords, from verbal and financial abuse to disrepair of property and illegal evictions. Both strands are brought together in looking beyond individual responsibility or culpability to the structural and lifecourse causes of the problems. Peoples housing choices and destinations are often shaped by a combination of their lifecourse circumstances and external (both economic and institutional) barriers. Where abuse is concerned, a two-tier tenancy system has made ‘regulated tenants’ vulnerable to their landlords; the legal remedies are endemically inappropriate; the housing benefit system is a major source of tension between landlords and tenants; and the modernised private rented sector has allowed no place for those who want secure long-term homes. In summary, this article examines how the law, housing policy and the housing market combine to produce particular problems for older private tenants.

Exploring the demographic location of housing wealth in East Asia

The spread of homeownership has had a profound impact on the pattern of life chances and opportunities across a wide range of societies with varying effects within and between generations. Particular attention has been paid to the impact of inheritance and inter vivos transfers associated with the growth of housing wealth. Both academics and policy makers have been concerned with its wider implications for the distribution of wealth. Most commentary and analysis have, however, been focused on Western societies, with more mature homeownership systems. Arguably, however, it is in East Asian societies where the combined impacts of rapid economic development, housing tenure change and substantial house price inflation have produced the most striking social transformation with the potential to exacerbate already widening social divisions. This paper explores the ways in which key institutional, economic and housing market factors have shaped the demographic distribution of housing wealth in China, Japan and Hong Kong and the likely implications for flows of assistance between generations. These shifting and contrasting relationships will have important implications for public policy priorities in the future.

Life-course Diversity, Housing Choices and Constraints for Women of the ‘Lost’ Generation in Japan

This article explores housing choices and trajectories of women in their 30s during a period of new risks and opportunities in Japans post-growth urban context. Due to the economic recession and the broader context of neoliberal globalization, there has been an observed delay among post-youth adults in their progression through the life-course. Many of the life-course transitions including leaving parental home, family formation and purchasing home, which used to occur earlier in peoples 20s, now often occur in their 30s. Thus the 30-somethings are a transitional cohort and women in particular are more likely to experience a profound impact in the context of economic deflation and deregulation. Drawing on qualitative data obtained through fieldwork, this article examines how womens diversified life-courses are shaping their housing choices; and how their housing opportunities are shaped by the wider structures of housing markets and institutions. It explores such processes of interplay between housing choices, opportunities and constraints of the ‘lost’ generation in Japan.

Handbook on East Asian Social Policy

Contents: Introduction Misa Izuhara PART I: SHAPING WELFARE STATES IN EAST ASIA: ORIGIN AND DEVELOPMENT PATHS 1. Pathways of Welfare State Development in East Asia John Hudson and Gyu-Jin Hwang 2. Between Western Europe and East Asia: Development of Social Policy in Japan Shogo Takegawa 3. Social Policy and its Implications to Structural Shifts: A Comparison between Taiwan and Korea in the Colonial Era Yu-fang Chang and Yeun-wen Ku 4. Past Policies, Current Arrangements: The Enduring Influence of British Colonial Social Policy in Malaysia and Hong Kong Kevin Caraher 5. Shaping Social Policy in the Reform Era in China Kinglun Ngok PART II: DEMOGRAPHY, ECONOMY AND SOCIAL POLICY 6. After the Regional and Global Financial Crises: Social Development Challenges and Social Policy Responses in Hong Kong and Macau Ka Ho Mok 7. Exploring Social and Generational Equity in the Context of Chinas Socio-economic and Demographic Transition Maggie Lau 8. Transitional Generations? The Contrasting Experiences of the 30-Somethings in China and Japan Ray Forrest and Misa Izuhara 9. The Shaping of Social Policies in Relation to Demographic Ageing in East Asia Kalyani K. Mehta PART III: EAST ASIA AND WELFARE REGIME DEBATES 10. Developmentalism and Productivism in East Asian Welfare Regimes Young Jun Choi 11. Ethnocentrism, the Developmental State and East Asian Welfare Alan Walker and Chack-kie Wong 12. Social Protection, Governance and the Dynamics of Inclusion and Exclusion in East Asia Patricia Kennett, Kam Wah Chan and Lucille Lok-Sun Ngan 13. Gender and Welfare States in East Asia: Women between Tradition and Equality Sirin Sung PART IV: RESEARCH AND SOCIETY 14. Presence of the State: Probing the Middle Class and Civic Organizations in Chinese Societies Tai-lok Lui and Shuo Liu 15. The Role of Philosophy and Ethics in Social Policy and Research: A Case Study of Hong Kong and Other Chinese Societies Ho Mun Chan 16. Challenges and Directions: Building a Comparative Quantitative Dataset for East Asian Social Policies Chan-ung Park and Dongchul Jung 17. Qualitative Research on Family Generations in Changing East Asian Societies Misa Izuhara and Ray Forrest PART V: CONTEMPORARY SOCIAL POLICY CHALLENGES IN EAST ASIA 18. Housing Policy in East Asia Richard Ronald 19. From Apartheid to Semi-citizenship: Chinese Migrant Workers and their Challenge to Social Policy Linda Wong 20. Poverty, the Working Poor and Social Policy in East Asia: Exploring the Second Safety Net Proposal in Japan Masami Iwata 21. The Political Economy of Cross-border Higher Education: The Intra-national Flow of Students in Greater China William Yat Wai Lo 22. Re-examining Family-centred Care Arrangements in East Asia Junko Yamashita, Naoko Soma and Raymond K.H. Chan Index