Mohammad S. Farhadinia

Leopard (Panthera pardus) status, distribution, and the research efforts across its range

The leopard’s (Panthera pardus) broad geographic range, remarkable adaptability, and secretive nature have contributed to a misconception that this species might not be severely threatened across its range. We find that not only are several subspecies and regional populations critically endangered but also the overall range loss is greater than the average for terrestrial large carnivores. To assess the leopard’s status, we compile 6,000 records at 2,500 locations from over 1,300 sources on its historic (post 1750) and current distribution. We map the species across Africa and Asia, delineating areas where the species is confirmed present, is possibly present, is possibly extinct or is almost certainly extinct. The leopard now occupies 25–37% of its historic range, but this obscures important differences between subspecies. Of the nine recognized subspecies, three (P. p. pardus, fusca, and saxicolor) account for 97% of the leopard’s extant range while another three (P. p. orientalis, nimr, and japonensis) have each lost as much as 98% of their historic range. Isolation, small patch sizes, and few remaining patches further threaten the six subspecies that each have less than 100,000 km2 of extant range. Approximately 17% of extant leopard range is protected, although some endangered subspecies have far less. We found that while leopard research was increasing, research effort was primarily on the subspecies with the most remaining range whereas subspecies that are most in need of urgent attention were neglected.

The global decline of cheetah Acinonyx jubatus and what it means for conservation

Significance Here, we compile and present the most comprehensive data available on cheetah distribution and status. Our analysis shows dramatic declines of cheetah across its distributional range. Most cheetah occur outside protected areas, where they are exposed to multiple threats, but there is little information on population status. Simulation modeling shows that, where cheetah population growth rates are suppressed outside protected areas, extinction risk increases markedly. This result can be generalized to other “protection-reliant” species, and a decision tree is provided to improve their extinction risk estimation. Ultimately, the persistence of protection-reliant species depends on their survival outside and inside protected areas and requires a holistic approach to conservation that engages rather than alienates local communities. Establishing and maintaining protected areas (PAs) are key tools for biodiversity conservation. However, this approach is insufficient for many species, particularly those that are wide-ranging and sparse. The cheetah Acinonyx jubatus exemplifies such a species and faces extreme challenges to its survival. Here, we show that the global population is estimated at ∼7,100 individuals and confined to 9% of its historical distributional range. However, the majority of current range (77%) occurs outside of PAs, where the species faces multiple threats. Scenario modeling shows that, where growth rates are suppressed outside PAs, extinction rates increase rapidly as the proportion of population protected declines. Sensitivity analysis shows that growth rates within PAs have to be high if they are to compensate for declines outside. Susceptibility of cheetah to rapid decline is evidenced by recent rapid contraction in range, supporting an uplisting of the International Union for the Conservation of Nature (IUCN) Red List threat assessment to endangered. Our results are applicable to other protection-reliant species, which may be subject to systematic underestimation of threat when there is insufficient information outside PAs. Ultimately, conserving many of these species necessitates a paradigm shift in conservation toward a holistic approach that incentivizes protection and promotes sustainable human–wildlife coexistence across large multiple-use landscapes.

Exceptionally long movements of the Asiatic cheetah Acinonyx jubatus venaticus across multiple arid reserves in central Iran

Understanding spatial ecology is essential for the development of effective and appropriate conservation strategies, especially for the Asiatic cheetah Acinonyx jubatus venaticus, which occurs at a low density across vast arid areas of Iran. Yet, despite its Critically Endangered status, information on the ranging and movement of this species was formerly lacking. Here we present data for exceptionally long movements of a few individuals across multiple reserves in central Iran, obtained using camera traps during 2009-2013. We identified an adult female who moved c. 150 km multiple times between two reserves in 3 years, covering an estimated 3,629 km 2 . After becoming independent her three sons formed a coalition and ranged across multiple reserves, covering an estimated 4,862 km 2 in their first 3 years. An adult male was also found patrolling three reserves, moving up to 40 km across an estimated 807km 2 . These data demonstrate that cheetahs in Iran cover vast ranges, and indicate a requirement for large, connected

Reproductive ecology of the Persian Leopard, Panthera pardus saxicolor, in Sarigol National Park, northeastern Iran.

Abstract According to our surveys carried out between April 2005 and March 2008 in the Sarigol National Park, northeastern Iran, the mating season of the Persian Leopard, Panthera pardus saxicolor, extends from mid-January to a peak in mid-February. Males and females associate briefly, and just after the short mating period they separate. We never found the leopards to raise more than two cubs. Most observations on leopard families were made in areas of high prey density. Our data, verified by camera trapping, indicate that track size alone is not reliable for the accurate identification of leopard age/sex categories.

Patterns of sexual dimorphism in the Persian Leopard (Panthera pardus saxicolor) and implications for sex differentiation

Extant felids show a high degree of inter-sexual dimorphism, meaning significant size differences between males and females. Such a differentiation may have various ecological, behavioural and evolutionary implications, at both species and subspecies levels. We have investigated the sexual size differences in one of the most dimorphic felids, i.e. the Leopard (Panthera pardus), based on 63 craniometric and 55 morphometric samples from Iran which belong to the subspecies Persian Leopard (P. p. saxicolor). In order to explore patterns of sexual dimorphism, multivariate statistical analysis on 24 skull variables as well as univariate approaches for two body measurements were applied. We found significant inter-sexual differences in skull size whereas it was not meaningful after removing the effect of size to address skull shape. Moreover, inter-sexual differentiation was also remarkable when comparing morphometric body measurements in adults, showing that the males possess a larger head mass and longer body, but sub-adults did not show any remarkable differentiation between sexes. A combination of craniometric and morphological features is proposed for sex differentiation in Leopards.

Socio-economic consequences of cattle predation by the Endangered Persian leopard Panthera pardus saxicolor in a Caucasian conflict hotspot, northern Iran

In the Caucasus the Endangered Persian leopard Panthera pardus saxicolor has been persecuted to the verge of extinction, primarily as a result of conflict with people over livestock predation. The socio-economic factors that influence this interaction have received little attention and the attitudes of local people towards leopards remain unknown. Here we assess the extent of cattle predation by leopards and how this influences peoples attitudes towards leopards among village residents around the Dorfak No-Hunting Area, a priority reserve in the Iranian Caucasus. In a survey of 66 households, 48% of interviewees reported losing cattle to leopards during 2009–2011. A mean of c. 0.7 head of cattle per interviewed household was reportedly killed by leopards over the 3-year survey period. Cattle predation peaked during warm seasons, when most family members were busy with rice farming-related activities, thus leaving their cattle grazing unguarded in the forest. Regardless of the intensity of cattle predation or socio-economic status, 80% of respondents perceived leopards as a pest, with 45% of interviewees expressing support for either licensed hunting or culling of the Dorfak leopards. We recommend that the Iranian government considers the financial consequences of livestock loss for poor rural communities across the leopards range. In addition, a combination of different livestock husbandry practices, with the direct involvement of local residents, is essential to ensure the long-term survival of the regional leopard population of the Caucasus.

Litter sizes of brown bears in the Central Alborz Protected Area, Iran

Abstract Although smaller than 4,000 km2, the Central Alborz Protected Area (CAPA) is one of the main habitats of brown bear (Ursus arctos) in Iran. During August 2005 to September 2009, we gathered data through direct observations of bears, identifying individual bears by means of age, sex, color, and behavior. We observed bears on 115 occasions. Mean size of cub litters was 2.00 (SE  =  0.20, n  =  13) and varied from 1 to 3. We speculate that low occurrence of meat in food items of the bears in the area explains this relatively small litter size. We hypothesize that the north-central portion of the Alborz Protected Area is a female core area which supports surrounding sink populations and needs to be protected more effectively.

Prey of the Persian Leopard (Panthera pardus saxicolor) in a mixed forest-steppe landscape in northeastern Iran (Mammalia: Felidae)

We carried out a dietary analysis of Persian Leopards, Panthera pardus saxicolor, in a temperate region in north-eastern Iran, where the largest population nucleus exists across the subspecies range. We investigated 113 faecal samples collected between February 2009 and March 2010 in Golestan National Park. Faecal analysis revealed that leopards predominantly preyed upon wild ungulates, with the Wild Boar, Sus scrofa, being the most important prey species in terms of frequency and biomass. Eleven different prey items were identified, 7 of which were ungulates, comprising 99% of the total food items. We also found a spatial pattern in the prey composition of leopards: cervids were predominantly found in forest landscapes, whereas Wild Sheep, Ovis orientalis, was mainly found in steppe habitats, revealing the leopards’ predation on medium-to large-sized ungulates. Livestock remains were mainly extracted from steppe samples, but the overall contribution to the leopard diet pattern (approximately 8.5% of consumed biomass) suggested that conflict with human communities, at least within the investigated core parts of the National Park, is not a major concern. The study provides the first illustration of the Persian Leopards dietary composition in a temperate area with a relatively high diversity of available prey, and can be a baseline for future investigation and human-leopard interaction monitoring

Sex-age structure of bovids in Ghameshlou, Central Iran (Mammalia: Bovidae).

Abstract Ghameshlou National Park and Wildlife Refuge is home to three bovids, Goitered Gazelle, Gazella subgutturosa (Güldenstädt, 1780), Wild Sheep, Ovis orientalis Gmelin, 1774, and Wild Goat, Capra aegagrus Erzleben, 1777. These have been subject to predation by Grey Wolf, Canis lupus Linnaeus, 1758, as well as to annual trophy hunting. In a demographic study between July 2007 and April 2009, we assessed the seasonal group size variation among the bovids and found that Goitered Gazelles have the largest groups in winter, while Wild Sheep form the largest groups in autumn. This difference is thought to be the result of patchily distributed, poor quality vegetation during the autumn and winter seasons, and the pursuit of different foraging strategies. Sex ratio was highly skewed toward females in Wild Sheep, but appears to be more balanced for the other two bovids. Twin lambs were encountered rarely in gazelles and Wild Sheep herds. Severe drought and wolf predation were considered to br the main causes of lower reproductive success in these two species compared to the Wild Goat. It is recommended that population parameters of the species should be monitored in order to predict potential demographic trends.

Goitered Gazelle, Gazella subgutturosa: its habitat preference and conservation needs in Miandasht Wildlife Refuge, north-eastern Iran: (Mammalia: Artiodactyla).

Abstract The present paper discusses the habitat preference of the Goitered Gazelle (Gazella subgutturosa Güldenstädt, 1780) using a combination of Geographical Information System (GIS) and statistical analysis of its spatial distribution in Miandasht Wildlife Refuge, north-eastern Iran. The critical habitat for gazelles in the Wildlife Refuge is composed of hilly terrain near flat plains where they prefer to feed; the nearby hilly escape terrain decreases their susceptibility to poachers. However, the gazelles’ “catchability” increases among hilly areas where their limited eyesight increases the chances for cheetahs to approach them. However, given the low density of the cheetahs, it seems that predators do not greatly affect gazelle spatial distribution in Miandasht. Marginal cultivated lands attract the gazelles from early summer until early winter which increases the frequency of gazelle sightings in tamarisk plains leading to farmlands. Poaching records indicate that a majority of gazelles have been taken on the open plains, usually en route to cultivated lands where suitable escape terrain is not available. The area is well-known for its large gazelle population in the past as well as its small cheetah population at present; therefore, immediate law enforcement is necessary to control the present decline in gazelle numbers, particularly in marginal habitats.