Mohammad Tariq

A Review of Hepatoprotective Plants Used in Saudi Traditional Medicine

Liver disease is one of the major causes of morbidity and mortality across the world. According to WHO estimates, about 500 million people are living with chronic hepatitis infections resulting in the death of over one million people annually. Medicinal plants serve as a vital source of potentially useful new compounds for the development of effective therapy to combat liver problems. Moreover herbal products have the advantage of better affordability and acceptability, better compatibility with the human body, and minimal side effects and is easier to store. In this review attempt has been made to summarize the scientific data published on hepatoprotective plants used in Saudi Arabian traditional medicine. The information includes medicinal uses of the plants, distribution in Saudi Arabia, ethnopharmacological profile, possible mechanism of action, chemical constituents, and toxicity data. Comprehensive scientific studies on safety and efficacy of these plants can revitalise the treatment of liver diseases.

Apolipoprotein E Gene Polymorphism and Serum Lipid Profile in Saudi Patients with Psoriasis

Background/Aim. Apolipoprotein E (APOE) gene variants have been reported to influence psoriasis risk. However, data is limited to a few ethnicities and no similar study has been performed in middle eastern populations. We investigated this association in Saudi psoriasis patients. Methods. Saudi subjects (294) were genotyped for APOE gene using APOE StripAssay kit. Results. The frequencies of alleles ε2, ε4, and genotypes ε3/ε4 and ε3/ε2 were significantly higher in psoriasis patients compared with those in controls. The frequency of ε3 allele and ε3/ε3 genotype was significantly lower in patients. Other genotypes, ε2/ε4, ε2/ε2, and ε4/ε4, were absent in both groups. The serum cholesterol, triglycerides, and LDL levels were significantly higher in psoriasis patients contrary to HDL level. Patients with APOE ε4 had significantly higher levels of total cholesterol and LDL cholesterol, whereas those with the ε2 had higher HDL cholesterol, and triglycerides. Conclusion. APOE alleles ε2, ε4, and genotypes ε2/ε3 and ε4/ε3 are associated with psoriasis and can be a risk factor while allele ε3 and genotype ε3/ε3 may be protective for psoriasis in Saudis. Results of lipid profile support that psoriasis is one of the independent risk factors for hyperlipidemia and emphasize the need of screening cardiovascular diseases in psoriatic patients.

Genetic Variants of Interleukin-10 Gene Promoter are Associated with Schizophrenia in Saudi Patients: A Case-Control Study

Background: Interleukin-10 (IL-10) gene is considered as a potential candidate gene in schizophrenia association studies. The polymorphisms on IL-10 gene have been reported to be linked with susceptibility to the development of schizophrenia within consistent results. Aims: The aim of this case-control study was to examine whether the -1082A/G, -819T/C, and -592A/C polymorphisms in IL-10 gene are implicated in schizophrenia development in the Saudi population. Materials and Methods: Molecular genotyping of IL-10 gene polymorphisms was performed to analyze the genotypes and alleles distribution of three single-nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) in patients (n = 181) and healthy individuals as control group (n = 211). Results: The frequencies of GA genotype at -1082, and CC genotype at positions -592 and -819 were significantly higher in schizophrenia patients compared to healthy subjects suggesting that GA, CC, and CC genotypes are susceptible to schizophrenia. The ACC haplotype known to be associated with intermediate production of IL-10 are more prevalent in our schizophrenia patients. On the other hand, genotypes -1082 GG, -819 CT, and -592 CA of IL-10 were more prevalent in healthy controls suggesting protective effects of GA, CT, and CA genotypes against schizophrenia. There was no significant association of IL-10 polymorphisms with sex or positive or negative symptoms of schizophrenia. Conclusion: This study indicates that the IL-10 gene polymorphisms play a significant role in the etiology of schizophrenia in Saudi Arabians patients.

Preparation, characterization, and in vivo evaluation of intranasally administered liposomal formulation of donepezil.

The adequate amount of drug delivery to the brain in neurological patients is a major problem faced by the physicians. Recent studies suggested that intranasal administration of liposomal formulation may improve the drug delivery to the brain. In the present study, an attempt was made to study the brain bioavailability of commonly used anti-Alzheimer drug donepezil (DNP) liposomal formulation by intranasal route in rats. We adopted the thin layer hydration technique for the preparation of liposomes by using cholesterol, polyethylene glycol, and 1,2-distearyl-sn-glycero-3-phosphocholine (DSPC). The prepared liposomes were characterized by determining particle size, shape, surface morphology, zeta potential, encapsulation efficiency, and in vitro release of DNP. The pharmacokinetic parameters of liposomal DNP in plasma and brain of rats were determined following oral and nasal administration. The results of this study showed that the DNP liposomal formulation was stable with a consistent size (102 ± 3.3 nm) and shape. The prepared liposomes showed high encapsulation efficiency (84.91% ±3 .31%) and sustained-release behavior. The bioavailability of DNP in plasma and brain increased significantly (P<0.05) after administration of liposomal formulation by the intranasal route. Histopathological examination showed that the formulation was safe and free from toxicity. It can be concluded that the nasal administration of liposomal preparation may provide an efficient and reliable mode of drug delivery to the central nervous system.

Apolipoprotein E Gene Polymorphisms in Saudi Patients with Systemic Lupus Erythematosus

Apolipoprotein E (APOE) is a glycosylated protein with multiple biological properties. APOE gene polymorphism plays a central role in lipid metabolism and has recently been suggested to regulate inflammation. Our objective is to evaluate whether APOE polymorphism affects susceptibility to SLE. APOE genotyping was performed using ApoE StripAssay™ kit. Results indicated significantly higher frequencies of allele ∊4 and genotype ∊3/∊4 and lower frequencies of allele ∊3 and genotype ∊3/∊3 in SLE patients than controls. APOE ∊2 allele was found in three patients, whereas it was absent in controls. The frequencies of allele ∊4 and genotype ∊3/∊4 were significantly higher in SLE patients with renal involvement and those of alleles ∊2, ∊4 and genotypes ∊2/∊3, ∊3/∊4 were higher in patients with neuropsychiatric symptoms. It is concluded that APOE allele ∊4 is associated with susceptibility risk/clinical manifestations of SLE and ∊2 may increase its severity while ∊3 is protective for SLE in Saudis.

Apolipoprotein E polymorphism is associated with susceptibility to schizophrenia among Saudis

Introduction Apolipoprotein E (APOE) genotypes influence the phenotype of several neurodegenerative disorders including Alzheimers and Parkinson disease and may affect schizophrenia pathogenesis. This study was undertaken to determine the association between APOE gene polymorphisms and schizophrenia in the Saudi population. Material and methods APOE allele and genotype frequencies were studied in 380 Saudi subjects including schizophrenia patients and matched controls using polymerase chain reaction (PCR) and reverse-hybridization techniques. Results The frequencies of the APOE allele ε2 and genotypes ε2/ε3 and ε2/ε4 were significantly higher in the schizophrenia patients as compared to controls, suggesting that the ε2 allele and its heterozygous genotypes may increase the susceptibility to schizophrenia. In contrast, the frequencies of the ε3 allele and ε3/ε3 genotype were lower in patients as compared to controls, suggesting a protective effect of APOE ε3 for schizophrenia. This study indicated that APOE ε4 was differentially associated with schizophrenia depending on the symptoms as the frequency of the ε4 allele was significantly higher in schizophrenia patients with positive symptoms. By contrast, no significant association between APOE ε4 and schizophrenia patients with negative symptoms was observed. Genotypes ε2/ε2 and ε4/ε4 were absent in patients and controls. Moreover, the age of onset was significantly lower in patients with the APOE ε2/ε3 genotype. There was no significant difference in the frequencies of APOE alleles and genotypes between male and female schizophrenia patients. Conclusions The results of this study clearly show that APOE alleles and genotypes are associated with risk of developing schizophrenia and early age of onset in Saudis.

Ethnobotany: A Living Science for Alleviating Human Suffering

Since time immemorial, plants served as the first source of medicine to treat ailments. Man learnt about the therapeutic use of plants through trials and errors. This knowledge has been orally passed from generation to generation which led to the development of the traditional health care system, practiced in various countries of the world [1]. Ethnobotanical studies discover plant resources that can be used for targeting novel compounds leading to the development of new medicaments for treating especially complicated and minor diseases [2]. Today, ethnobotany and ethnopharmacognosy are being used for targeting new compound. Due to being rich in diversity, tropical regions may play key role in providing germplasm with new leads [1]. n nIt is estimated that 80% of the worlds population lives in developing countries and over 80% of the worlds population rely on plant-derived medicines for their primary health care needs [3]. Based on the personal experience, people knew therapeutic potential of the medicinal plants without rationale of their efficacy. Because of advancement, we have a better understanding of the healing powers of plants due to presence of multifunctional chemical entities for treating complicated health conditions. n nThe ethnobotany provided significant information that led to isolation of active compounds from the recent past like morphine from opium, cocaine, codeine, digitoxin, and quinine [4–6]. It is worthwhile to mention that a dozen of effective valuable drugs are discovered during the last 40 years from higher plants. The very common ones are diosgenin derived from Dioscorea deltoidea; reserpine from Rauwolfia serpentina; pilocarpine from Pilocarpus spp.; vincristine/vinblastine from Catharanthus roseus; digoxin/digitoxin from Digitalis species [7]; arteether (trade name Artemotil), a recent antimalarial drug is obtained from artemisinin-a sesquiterpene lactone isolated from Artemisia annua [8]; galantamine (also known as galanthamine, trade name Reminyl) isolated from Galanthus woronowii [9, 10]. n nDrug discovery from plant lore and traditional medicines are reemerging. Ethnobotanical studies exposed various medicinal plants for discovering miraculous drugs which are still available in the market. Even today, various areas of the world have a unique tradition of plant lore for alleviating human suffering as well as their domesticated animals. There is a need to document such valuable information before it is permanently lost. Based on such data, new medicaments can be predicted through undergoing experimentation which may be of potential use to treat various complicated human diseases. The plant kingdom is an implicit gold mine of new chemical compounds which are still waiting to be explored. It is estimated that there are approximately 500,000 to 750,000 species of higher plants existing on earth and less than 10% of them are examined for their biochemical constituents [11]. n nKeeping the importance of ethnobotany, an interdisciplinary field of study, this special issue was dedicated to the integration of past and present use of plants reporting traditional/folk medicinal use along with latest development for validation of such information through scientific studies. This special issue is a collection of seven articles portraying the use of medicinal plants and their therapeutic potential. The issue is mainly divided into two main themes; the first one describes the traditional knowledge of plants and the other one describes validation of such knowledge through in vitro assays. n nFrom ethnobotanical perspective, four articles are selected. K. C. Chinsembu carried out an ethnobotanical study from Livingstone, Southern Province, Zambia. He reported 94 medicinal plant species which are used to treat HIV/AIDS-related diseases. He stressed to confirm the antimicrobial efficacies, pharmacological parameters, cytotoxicity, and active chemical ingredients of the discovered plants. In a study carried out by M. Meragiaw et al. reported ethnobotanical enumeration of Delanta (Ethiopia) to examine the use of medicinal plants and impacts of the 1984/85 resettlement program on the local peoples knowledge on herbal medicine and its uses. They reported 133 species belonged to 116 genera and 57 families in treating 76 human and livestock ailments. Their analysis showed that the resettlement program has both positive and negative impacts on nature rehabilitation and local knowledge along with many human induced threats. S. F. Sabran et al. discovered ethnomedical knowledge of plants used for the treatment of tuberculosis by the Jakun community of Kampung Peta (Malaysia). They identified 23 plants which are used by the community for the same purpose. Dipterocarpus sublamellatus was recorded for the first time as novel species to treat tuberculosis. They urged that findings of this study are worth being further investigated for conservation strategies and are worthy of verifying their ethnomedical claims scientifically. A survey was conducted by M. A. Agbor and S. Naidoo to document ethnomedicinal use of plants by the traditional healers in treating oral health problems in Cameroon. They reported 52 plants which are being used for the management of toothache, sore throat, mouth sores, abscess, broken tooth and jaw, tooth sensitivity, mouth thrush, dental caries, gingivitis, sinusitis, tonsillitis, xerostomia, oral syphilis, oral cancer, TMJ pain, halitosis, tooth bleaching, and dental extraction. n nFrom the bioactivity assessment point of view, four articles were selected. M. K. Swamy et al. investigated the effect of different solvents on the extraction of phytoconstituents of Lantana camara leaves and their antioxidant and antibacterial activities. They reported that the methanol solvent yielded the highest phenolic (92.8u2009mgu2009GAE/g) and flavonoid (26.5u2009mgu2009RE/g) content revealing antioxidant activity. Methanol extract had the highest inhibition activity against all the tested microbes. They identified major compounds such as hexadecanoic acid (5.197%), phytol (4.528%), caryophyllene oxide (4.605%), and 9,12,15-octadecatrienoic acid, methyl ester, (Z,Z,Z)- (3.751%) through GC-MS. A laboratory study carried out by N. Jayawardena et al. investigated antioxidant and starch hydrolase inhibitory activities of 10 spices through in vitro model of digestion mimicking the gastric and duodenal conditions. The total phenolic contents in all spice extracts had significantly increased following both gastric and duodenal digestion revealing a correlation with the antioxidant assays quantifying the water-soluble antioxidant capacity of the extracts. They concluded that the tested spices had a significant source of total phenolics, antioxidant, and starch hydrolase inhibitory activities. Finally, S. Baral et al. studied in vivo ameliorating effect of myrrh (AEM) on scopolamine-induced memory impairments using mice model. The AEM was estimated with (2E,5E)-6-hydroxy-2,6-dimethylhepta-2,4-dienal as a representative constituent through HPLC. The oral administration of AEM ameliorated the scopolamine-induced memory impairments and increased the phosphorylation of Akt and ERK in the hippocampus of mice brain. n nWe anticipate that this special issue will provide traditional knowledge of plants existing in various traditional communities to manage and treat various diseases as well as their scientific validation through bioassay assessment.

The Role of Apolipoprotein E Gene Polymorphisms in Primary Glaucoma and Pseudoexfoliation Syndrome

Primary glaucoma (PG) is one of the most common eye diseases which may potentially result in bilateral blindness. Glaucoma affects 70 million people and is the second leading cause of blindness worldwide. It is estimated that by the year 2020, this number would rise to around 79.6 million [1]. The prevalence of glaucoma varies widely across the different ethnic groups [2-8] and is significantly higher in blacks (4.7%) as compared to the white (1.3%) population [9]. The prevalence of both primary open angle glaucoma (POAG) and primary angle closure glaucoma (PACG) is higher in western region of Saudi Arabia as compared to other Asian countries [10]. To date no national study has been undertaken to determine the exact preva‐ lence of glaucoma in Saudi Arabia, though it is one of the major causes of blindness in this country.

Prevalence of ocular pseudoexfoliation syndrome and associated complications in Riyadh, Saudi Arabia.

Objectives: To assess the prevalence of pseudoexfoliation syndrome (PEX), and associated ophthalmic complications among Saudi patients. Methods: The prevalence of PEX and associated ocular co-morbidities were determined among the Saudi patients visiting the Primary Care Clinic of Prince Sultan Military Medical City, Riyadh, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia, between January 2009 and January 2010. A total of 1967 patients were examined biomicoscopically by ophthalmologists to determine the presence of PEX and associated ocular complications. Results: Sixty-nine of the 1967 examined patients (3.5%) showed the presence of PEX with no significant gender difference. There was an age dependent increase in the prevalence of PEX after the age of 50 years. Pseudoexfoliation syndrome was associated with higher intraocular pressure, cataract, and poor vision. There was no significant difference in the prevalence of PEX in male and female Saudi patients. Conclusion: Pseudoexfoliation syndrome is an age-related disorder, and its prevalence increases with age. Further larger population based studies are warranted to assess the prevalence of PEX and associated risk factors.

Effect of vitamin D on bioavailability and lipid lowering efficacy of simvastatin

The 3-hydroxy 3-methylglutaryl coenzyme A reductase (HMG-CoA reductase) inhibitors known as “statins” are widely prescribed for the management of dyslipidemia. In spite of their muscle toxicity, use of statins has alarmingly increased worldwide. A recent report suggests that vitamin D (VD) levels are closely associated with lipid lowering activity and muscular toxicity of statins. However, data are limited and inconclusive. The present study was undertaken to investigate the effect of VD supplementation on the bioavailability and lipid lowering effect of simvastatin (ST). Adult Sprague–Dawley male rats (250xa0±xa010xa0g) were divided into four groups including control, ST (100xa0mg/kg/day), VD (100xa0μg/kg/day) and STxa0+xa0VD group, respectively. After the dosing period of 8xa0days the animals were sacrificed and the blood was collected for the analysis of ST, its active metabolite simvastatin acid (STA), total cholesterol, triglyceride and liver enzymes including aspartate transaminase and alanine transaminase. The result of this study showed a significant decrease in the level of cholesterol and triglyceride in ST alone treated group, whereas VD alone failed to alter the blood lipid levels. Concomitant treatment with VD produced significant decrease in the bioavailability of ST and STA. However, there was no significant difference in the level of cholesterol in ST alone and in STxa0+xa0VD treated group. Our results on the liver enzyme suggest that ST alone or in combination with VD does not produce any hepatotoxicity. Further studies using VD along with various statins for a longer duration are suggested.