Molly Cooke

Calls for Reform of Medical Education by the Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching: 1910 and 2010

The Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching, which in 1910 helped stimulate the transformation of North American medical education with the publication of the Flexner Report, has a venerated place in the history of American medical education. Within a decade following Flexners report, a strong scientifically oriented and rigorous form of medical education became well established; its structures and processes have changed relatively little since. However, the forces of change are again challenging medical education, and new calls for reform are emerging. In 2010, the Carnegie Foundation will issue another report, Educating Physicians: A Call for Reform of Medical School and Residency, that calls for (1) standardizing learning outcomes and individualizing the learning process, (2) promoting multiple forms of integration, (3) incorporating habits of inquiry and improvement, and (4) focusing on the progressive formation of the physicians professional identity. The authors, who wrote the 2010 Carnegie report, trace the seeds of these themes in Flexners work and describe their own conceptions of them, addressing the prior and current challenges to medical education as well as recommendations for achieving excellence. The authors hope that the new report will generate the same excitement about educational innovation and reform of undergraduate and graduate medical education as the Flexner Report did a century ago.

Management of Chronic Insomnia Disorder in Adults: A Clinical Practice Guideline From the American College of Physicians

DESCRIPTION The American College of Physicians (ACP) developed this guideline to present the evidence and provide clinical recommendations on the management of chronic insomnia disorder in adults. METHODS This guideline is based on a systematic review of randomized, controlled trials published in English from 2004 through September 2015. Evaluated outcomes included global outcomes assessed by questionnaires, patient-reported sleep outcomes, and harms. The target audience for this guideline includes all clinicians, and the target patient population includes adults with chronic insomnia disorder. This guideline grades the evidence and recommendations by using the ACP grading system, which is based on the GRADE (Grading of Recommendations Assessment, Development and Evaluation) approach. RECOMMENDATION 1 ACP recommends that all adult patients receive cognitive behavioral therapy for insomnia (CBT-I) as the initial treatment for chronic insomnia disorder. (Grade: strong recommendation, moderate-quality evidence). RECOMMENDATION 2 ACP recommends that clinicians use a shared decision-making approach, including a discussion of the benefits, harms, and costs of short-term use of medications, to decide whether to add pharmacological therapy in adults with chronic insomnia disorder in whom cognitive behavioral therapy for insomnia (CBT-I) alone was unsuccessful. (Grade: weak recommendation, low-quality evidence).

What training is needed in the fourth year of medical school? Views of residency program directors.

Purpose To identify common struggles of interns, determine residency program directors’ (PDs’) views of the competencies to be gained in the fourth year of medical school, and apply this information to formulate goals of curricular reform and student advising. Method In 2007, semistructured interviews were conducted with 30 PDs in the 10 most common specialty choices of students at the University of California, San Francisco, School of Medicine to assess the PDs’ priorities for knowledge, skills, and attitudes to be acquired in the fourth year. Interviews were coded to identify major themes. Results Common struggles of interns were lack of self-reflection and improvement, poor organizational skills, underdeveloped professionalism, and lack of medical knowledge. The Accreditation Council for Graduate Medical Education competencies of patient care, practice-based learning and improvement, interpersonal and communication skills, and professionalism were deemed fundamental to fourth-year students’ development. Rotations recommended across specialties were a subinternship in a student’s future field and in internal medicine (IM), rotations in an IM subspecialty, critical care, and emergency and ambulatory medicine. PDs encouraged minimizing additional time spent in the student’s future field. Suggested coursework included an intensively coached transitional subinternship and courses to improve students’ medical knowledge. Conclusions PDs deemed the fourth year to have a critical role in the curriculum. There was consensus about expected fourth-year competencies and the common clinical experiences that best prepare students for residency training. These findings support using the fourth year to transition students to graduate medical training and highlight areas for curricular innovation.

Cost!Consciousness!in!Patient!Care!—!What!Is!Medical! Education's!Responsibility?

One might imagine that medical educators have attempted to incorporate cost consciousness into their teaching, but such efforts have been remarkably few. Dr. Molly Cooke discusses how medical education can address the urgent issue of cost.

Postbereavement depressive mood and its prebereavement predictors in HIV+ and HIV- gay men.

Prebereavement predictors of the course of postbereavement depressive mood were examined in 110 gay men who were their partners caregiver until the partners death of AIDS. In all, 37 HIV+ and 73 HIV- bereaved caregiving partners were assessed bimonthly throughout a 10-month period beginning 3 months before and ending 7 months after the partners death. Throughout the 10 months, mean Centers for Epidemiology Scale-Depression (CES-D) scores on depressive mood were above the cutoff for being at risk for major depression. CES-D scores decreased for 63% bereaved caregivers over the 7 postbereavement months, and 37% showed little change from high CES-D scores or increasing CES-D scores. High prebereavement CES-D scores and finding positive meaning in caregiving predicted diminishing depressive mood; HIV+ serostatus, longer relationships, hassles, and use of distancing and self-blame to cope predicted unrelieved depressive mood.

The Academy Movement: A Structural Approach to Reinvigorating the Educational Mission

Despite its fundamental importance, the educational mission of most medical schools receives far less recognition and support than do the missions of research and patient care. This disparity is based, in part, on the predominance of discipline-based departments, which focus on the more sustainable enterprises of research and patient care. Where departmental teaching is emphasized, it tends to center on trainees directly associated with the department—leaving medical students unsupported. The authors argue that the ongoing erosion of the educational mission will never be reversed unless there are changes in the underlying structure of medical schools. Academies of medical educators are developing at a number of medical schools to advance the school-wide mission of education. The authors describe and compare key features of such organizations at eight medical schools, identified through an informal survey of the Society of Directors of Research in Medical Education, along with direct contacts with specific schools. Although these entities are relatively new, initial assessments suggest that they have already had a major impact on the recognition of teaching efforts by the faculty, fueled curricular reform, promoted educational scholarship, and garnered new resources to support teaching. The academy movement, as a structural approach to change, shows promise for reinvigorating the educational mission of academic medicine.

When the Time Comes To Talk About HIV: Factors Associated With Diagnostic Disclosure and Emotional Distress in HIV-Infected Children

Objective: To determine factors related to the timing and probability of nondisclosure of HIV status to perinatally HIV‐infected children, and to explore factors associated with emotional distress in HIV‐infected children. Methods: This is a cross‐sectional study of 51 HIV‐infected children based on medical records, parent interviews, and child assessments. Results: 1) Probability of earlier age of disclosure is associated with higher child IQ (p = .04) and more family expressiveness (p = .01); 2) controlling for child age, disclosure status at time of study is associated with major life events, but not with medical status; and 3) factors associated with increased parent‐rated anxiety in HIVinfected children in univariate analyses are: HIV disclosure (p = .04), other major life events (p = .001), higher medication dose frequency (p = .01), and child age (p = .01). Increased depression is associated only with more medication doses (p = .02). Conclusion: These data indicate that higher child IQ and greater family expressiveness increase the probability of earlier diagnostic disclosure to HIV‐infected children. Factors associated with emotional distress highlight important areas of clinical attention. These data suggest that diagnostic disclosure may not necessarily minimize emotional distress, indicating the need for further evaluation of the appropriate timing and type of disclosure for pediatric HIV.

Evaluation of the seminar method to improve clinical teaching

The effects of a seminar method to improve the teaching of ward attending physicians were evaluated. Forty-six attending physicians from four institutions were randomly assigned to experimental and control groups. The method was evaluated to assess its effects on attending physicians’ performances and attitudes, and impact on learners. Evaluation methods included ratings of videotapes of ward rounds, teachers’ subjective assessments of both their teaching performances and their experiences in the study, and trainee ratings. Videotape ratings, the teachers’ own assessments, and the trainees’ assessments of the attending physicians’ impact on learning were significantly different, favoring the experimental group (p<0.05). It is concluded that the seminar method can provide the basis for effective and feasible approaches for improving clinical teaching by attending physicians.

Voluntary screening for human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infection. Weighing the benefits and harms.

Voluntary screening for human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infection may help prevent the spread of the HIV epidemic if persons who test positive alter behaviors that may transmit infection. Protecting persons from unknowingly being exposed to HIV infection must be balanced against respecting the autonomy of individuals being screened. Seropositive patients may feel a stigma and be subjected to discrimination if confidentiality of test results is breached. In patients without high-risk behaviors, the positive predictive value of HIV testing may be substantially increased if tests are done in reference laboratories and if further confirmatory tests are run on a second blood specimen. For persons with high-risk behaviors, HIV testing can be recommended to those who want to reduce uncertainty about their HIV status or whose medical care would change if they were seropositive. Health care workers can maximize benefits of screening and minimize harm by educating and counseling patients before HIV testing, discussing the confidentiality of HIV test results, urging patients to disclose positive test results to sex partners, and advising patients on how to reduce high-risk behaviors.

Diagnostic Disclosure to HIV-Infected Children: How Parents Decide when and what to Tell:

The objective of this study was to assess parental decision-making about illness disclosure to human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)-infected children. This is a cross-sectional study of 51 children with HIV infection based on parent interviews, child cognitive testing, clinical assessments and medical records. Only 43% of children had been told their HIV diagnosis. Qualitative analysis of parental decision- making about illness disclosure varied by child developmental level. Factors influencing parental decision to disclose the child’s HIV status including parental communication style, parental illness, child’s rights, treatment adherence, child questions and provider pressures, whereas concerns about HIV stigma and potential emotional distress were most frequently identified as reasons for non- disclosure. Central decision-making factors for parental HIV disclosure and reported outcomes of disclosure are described. Pediatric HIV disclosure represents a complex task for parents caring for the HIV-infected child, one in which the child’s development and the family’s community should be considered in the setting of a potentially stigmatizing infectious illness.