Morton Goldman

Intergroup and intragroup competition and cooperation

Abstract This study examined the effects on group performance and evaluation of three factors: intergroup competition or cooperation, intragroup competition or cooperation, and task means-interdependence. Intragroup cooperation was related positively to performance on a high means-interdependent task and was related negatively to performance on a low means-interdependent task. However, this relationship held only when there was intergroup cooperation rather than intergroup competition. These results were discussed in terms of their implications for the relative magnitude of the motives produced by the intragroup and intergroup reward structure. Evaluations of ingroup members were higher when there was intragroup cooperation than when there was intragroup competition. To foster ingroup liking, it was not necessary to introduce intergroup competition.

Prosocial Behavior as Affected by Eye Contact, Touch, and Voice Expression

Summary Eighty-one women and 79 men who were walking on a college campus were interviewed by a confederate (C) who either engaged in frequent eye contract or did not look at the S, touched or did not touch the S, and spoke in either a natural, warm, expressive tone of voice or spoke with a flat, nonexpressive voice. At the completion of the interview, the C dropped several folded questionnaires. Greater helping behavior occurred when the C used an expressive voice rather than a flat voice. An interaction effect was obtained for the eye and touch conditions, with high levels of helping for eye contact/no touch and no eye contact/touch, and low levels of helping for no eye contact/no touch and eye contact/touch.

Social Labeling and the Foot-in-the-Door Effect

Summary The foot-in-the-door procedure, first experimentally proposed by Freedman and Fraser, increases compliance for a critical request by preceding it with an easier request. Self-perception theory has frequently been used to explain why the procedure is effective. Labeling of an individuals behavior by others also may influence that individuals self-concept. The present study combined a labeling technique with the foot-in-the-door procedure to see whether compliance would be altered. An easy request was first asked of individuals entering a university library, and after answering they were informed that their response was either helpful or not helpful. Control conditions were also carried out. With 120 university students serving as Ss, the results showed that a positive label produced significantly greater compliance, and a negative label produced significantly lower compliance, when compared to the typical (nonlabel) foot-in-the-door procedure.

The Effect of Touching Different Body Areas on Prosocial Behavior

Summary The influence of touching different locations of the body on helping behavior was examined. One hundred females and 100 males walking in shopping males were interviewed by either a female or male confederate (C). At the end of the interview, the C touched the S on either the shoulder, the upper arm, the lower arm, the hand, or did not touch the S, and immediately after dropped several survey forms. The greatest helping behavior was received when the female C touched male and female Ss on the upper arm, with almost all males helping when touched on this area. However, the male C received about the same level of help regardless of where he touched the Ss, or if he did not touch them. The female C received greater help than the male C, and more help from male Ss than female Ss.

Compliance Employing a Two-Feet-in-the-Door Procedure

Summary The typical foot-in-the-door experimental procedure increases compliance for a hard critical request by preceding it with an easy request. The current study investigated whether interposing an intermediate request between the initial and final request would increase compliance above the level obtained in the typical foot-in-the-door procedure. The level of the intermediate request was easy, moderate, or hard. The Ss, 120 persons randomly selected from the telephone directory, were called and asked to help a new radio station. The results showed that while all three-request procedures produced increased compliance when compared to the two-request foor-in-the-door procedure, a significant increase occurred only when the intermediate request was of a moderate level.

Compliance Employing a Combined Foot-in-the-Door and Door-in-the-Face Procedure

Abstract The foot-in-the-door procedure increases compliance for a desired target request by making an easier first request. In the door-in-the-face procedure, compliance is increased by first making an extremely hard request and following this with a target request, the one actually desired. The current study combined both of these procedures and formulated a new compliance technique consisting of two initial requests to precede the target request. Three hundred and eighty subjects selected at random from the telephone directory were called to test the new compliance procedure. The results showed that compliance was significantly greater for the new combination method when compared with both other methods. The theoretical model developed to devise and explain the new method also received support.

Interpersonal Touch, Social Labeling, and the Foot-in-the-Door Effect

Abstract The foot-in-the-door procedure increases compliance for a desired request by preceding that request with an easier first request. Labeling and touch have been shown to affect compliance. This study examined whether these variables would influence the “foot” procedure. Subjects for the study were 120 individuals who were approaching a university library. The results showed that, in comparing individuals receiving a positive label and touch or a negative label without touch, compliance increased with touch and no label, positive label and no touch, or negative label and touch.

Increasing Altruistic Behavior by Using Compliance Techniques

Summary Two studies were conducted to examine whether two procedures which have served to increase compliance (the-door-in-the-face and the-foot-in-the-door) would also prove useful for enhancing altruism. Forty men and 40 women who were walking in shopping areas served as Ss for the first study which found that a modification of both the “face” and “foot” procedures produced significantly more altruistic behavior than a control condition. Statements from Ss indicated that a “worthy-person” explanation might account for the increased help obtained when using the face procedure. The second study tested the worthy-person model with 30 male and 30 female Ss, and the results significantly supported the model. Both studies also demonstrated that only contact with the Ss was not sufficient to produce higher levels of altruistic behavior.

Self-esteem, need for approval, and reactions to personal evaluations

Abstract In accordance with theoretical predictions concerning the reactions of high and low self-esteem individuals, S s with low self-esteem scores showed an increase in liking for a positive evaluator of self and a decrease in liking for a negative evaluator of self. S s with high self-esteem scores and low Marlowe-Crowne scores did not show a significant change in liking for either a positive or negative evaluator of self. S s with high self-esteem scores and high Marlowe-Crowne scores showed a pattern of reaction similar to that of low self-esteem S s. It was suggested that a sizable percentage of high self-esteem scorers should be reclassified as low self-esteem. This subgroup seems to obtain high scores on a self-esteem inventory by presenting themselves in an overly favorable as opposed to honest manner (the defining characteristic of a high Marlowe-Crowne scorer) but shows behavior patterns similar to low self-esteem individuals.

Helping Behavior as Affected by Type of Request and Identity of Caller

Summary Using the “wrong number” technique, a confederate (C) telephoned 120 Ss, whose numbers were randomly selected from the telephone directory, and presented himself either as a victim in need of help or as a bystander doing a good deed. The C used either a victim-oriented, a target-oriented, or a control request. The results showed that significantly more Ss helped when the caller was a bystander rather than the victim. Significantly more help was also obtained when a victim-oriented request was employed than when a target-oriented or control request was used.