Motohiro Wakabayashi

Energy metabolism of leukemia cells: glycolysis versus oxidative phosphorylation.

For generation of energy, cancer cells utilize glycolysis more vigorously than oxidative phosphorylation in mitochondria (Warburg effect). We examined the energy metabolism of four leukemia cell lines by using glycolysis inhibitor, 2-deoxy-d-glucose (2-DG) and inhibitor of oxidative phosphorylation, oligomycin. NB4 was relatively sensitive to 2-DG (IC50: 5.75 mM), consumed more glucose and produced more lactate (waste product of glycolysis) than the three other cell lines. Consequently, NB4 was considered as a “glycolytic” leukemia cell line. Dependency on glycolysis in NB4 was confirmed by the fact that glucose (+) FCS (−) medium showed more growth and survival than glucose (−) FCS (+) medium. Alternatively, THP-1, most resistant to 2-DG (IC50: 16.14 mM), was most sensitive to oligomycin. Thus, THP-1 was recognized to be dependent on oxidative phosphorylation. In THP-1, glucose (−) FCS (+) medium showed more growth and survival than glucose (+) FCS (−) medium. The dependency of THP-1 on FCS was explained, at least partly, by fatty acid oxidation because inhibitor of fatty acid β-oxidation, etomoxir, augmented the growth suppression of THP-1 by 2-DG. We also examined the mechanisms by which THP-1 was resistant to, and NB4 was sensitive to 2-DG treatment. In THP-1, AMP kinase (AMPK), which is activated when ATP becomes limiting, was rapidly phosphorylated by 2-DG, and expression of Bcl-2 was augmented, which might result in resistance to 2-DG. On the other hand, AMPK phosphorylation and augmentation of Bcl-2 expression by 2-DG were not observed in NB4, which is 2-DG sensitive. These results will facilitate the future leukemia therapy targeting metabolic pathways.

Growth inhibition of AML cells with specific chromosome abnormalities by monoclonal antibodies to receptors for vascular endothelial growth factor

By using neutralizing monoclonal antibodies to vascular endothelial growth factor receptor type 1 (VEGFR1) and VEGFR2, we have shown that acute myelogenous leukemia (AML) cells with specific chromosome abnormalities are dependent on VEGF/VEGFR system. AML with t(8;21) is the most dependent subtype on VEGF with both VEGFR1 and VEGFR2. t(15;17)AML cells depend on VEGF with VEGFR1. AML cells with 11q23 abnormalities showed variable dependence on VEGF. The growth of t(11;19)AML cells are most extensively inhibited by anti-VEGFR1 antibody. Then, the growth of Kasumi-1, a t(8;21) cell line was suppressed by either anti-VEGFR1 antibody (p=0.0022) or anti-VEGFR2 antibody (p=0.0029) in a dose-dependent manner. The growth of NB4, a t(15;17) cell line was more potently suppressed by anti-VEGFR1 antibody (p=0.0111) than by anti-VEGFR2 antibody (p=0.0477). These results are quite concordant with the results of clinical samples with t(8;21) or t(15;17). In addition, anti-VEGFR2 monoclonal antibody significantly potentiated the growth inhibitory effect of idarubicin for Kasumi-1. As for downstream signals, we have shown that VEGFR2 transduce growth and survival signals through phosphorylation of Akt and MEK in leukemia cells (Kasumi-1). However, VEGFR1 transduce growth and survival signals through pathways other than MEK and Akt (NB4), although Akt phosphorylation may account for some of the VEGFR1 signals (Kasumi-1). Finally, our data suggested that autocrine pathway of VEGF and VEGFRs observed in AML cells with specific chromosomal translocations have contributed to leukemogenesis as activated signaling of receptor tyrosine kinase.

Leukemia cells demonstrate a different metabolic perturbation provoked by 2-deoxyglucose.

The shift in energy metabolism from oxidative phosphorylation to glycolysis can serve as a target for the inhibition of cancer growth. Here, we examined the metabolic changes induced by 2-deoxyglucose (2-DG), a glycolysis inhibitor, in leukemia cells by metabolome analysis. NB4 cells mainly utilized glucose as an energy source by glycolysis and oxidative phosphorylation in mitochondria, since metabolites in the glycolytic pathway and in the tricarboxylic acid (TCA) cycle were significantly decreased by 2-DG. In THP-1 cells, metabolites in the TCA cycle were not decreased to the same extent by 2-DG as in NB4 cells, which indicates that THP-1 utilizes energy sources other than glucose. TCA cycle metabolites in THP-1 cells may be derived from acetyl-CoA by fatty acid β-oxidation, which was supported by abundant detection of carnitine and acetylcarnitine in THP-1 cells. 2-DG treatment increased the levels of pentose phosphate pathway (PPP) metabolites and augmented the generation of NADPH by glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase. An increase in NADPH and upregulation of glutathione synthetase expression resulted in the increase in the reduced form of glutathione by 2-DG in NB4 cells. We demonstrated that a combination of 2-DG and inhibition of PPP by dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA) effectively suppressed the growth of NB4 cells. The replenishment of the TCA cycle by fatty acid oxidation by carnitine palmitoyltransferase in THP-1 cells, treated by 2-DG, might be regulated by AMPK, as the combination of 2-DG and inhibition of AMPK by compound C potently suppressed the growth of THP-1 cells. Although 2-DG has been effective in preclinical and clinical studies, this treatment has not been fully explored due to concerns related to potential toxicities such as brain toxicity at high doses. We demonstrated that a combination of 2-DG and DHEA or compound C at a relatively low concentration effectively inhibits the growth of NB4 and THP-1 cells, respectively. These observations may aid in the identification of appropriate combinations of metabolic inhibitors at low concentrations which do not cause toxicities.

Growth of xenotransplanted leukemia cells is influenced by diet nutrients and is attenuated with 2-deoxyglucose

We examined the effects of diet nutrients on xenotransplanted leukemia cells, THP-1 or NB4. THP-1 tumors showed more growth when fed with high fat diet, while NB4 tumors grew more with high carbohydrate diet. Then, administration of 2-deoxyglucose (a glycolysis inhibitor) showed a significant antitumor effect on both tumors: NB4 tumor showed large necrotic areas, while THP-1 tumor did not, but had augmented expression of enzymes for fatty acid oxidation. 2-Deoxyglucose inhibited the growth of NB4 by cell death because main energy producing pathway (glycolysis) was abolished, while 2-deoxyglucose slowed the growth of THP-1 by shifting energy metabolism to fatty acid β-oxidation.

Establishment of a novel human myeloid leukemia cell line, AMU‐AML1, carrying t(12;22)(p13;q11) without chimeric MN1‐TEL and with high expression of MN1

In this study, we established and analyzed a novel human myeloid leukemia cell line, AMU‐AML1, from a patient with acute myeloid leukemia with multilineage dysplasia before the initiation of chemotherapy. AMU‐AML1 cells were positive for CD13, CD33, CD117, and HLA‐DR by flow cytometry analysis and showed a single chromosomal abnormality, 46, XY, t(12;22)(p13;q11.2), by G‐banding and spectral karyotyping. Fluorescent in situ hybridization analysis indicated that the chromosomal breakpoint in band 12p13 was in the sequence from the 5′ untranslated region to intron 1 of TEL and that the chromosomal breakpoint in band 22q11 was in the 3′ untranslated region of MN1. The chimeric transcript and protein of MN1‐TEL could not be detected by reverse‐transcriptase polymerase chain reaction or Western blot analysis. However, the MN1 gene was amplified to three copies detected by array comparative genomic hybridization analysis, and the expression levels of the MN1 transcript and protein were high in AMU‐AML1 cells when compared with other cell lines with t(12;22)(p13;q11‐12). Our data showed that AMU‐AML1 cells contain t(12;22)(p13;q11.2) without chimeric fusion of MN1 and TEL. The AMU‐AML1 cells gained MN1 copies and had high expression levels of MN1. Thus, the AMU‐AML1 cell line is useful for studying the biological consequences of t(12;22)(p13;q11.2) lacking chimeric MN1‐TEL.