Mulki Mölsä

Changing Conceptions of Mental Distress Among Somalis in Finland

This article examines how the conceptions, expressions and treatment of mental distress are changing among Somalis living in Finland. The data derive from two focus group interviews with Somali seniors and two individual interviews with Islamic healers. Conditions conceptualized by the Finnish biomedical system as mental disorders, are seen by most Somalis as spiritual and/or social problems. Somali migrants face new sources of suffering and new ways of interpreting them. Consequently, traditional conceptions of mental distress both persist and change. Islamic understandings of healing, including notions of jinn spirits and treatment, continue to be important in exile.

Mental and somatic health and pre- and post-migration factors among older Somali refugees in Finland

Mental and somatic health was compared between older Somali refugees and their pair-matched Finnish natives, and the role of pre-migration trauma and post-migration stressors among the refugees. One hundred and twenty-eight Somalis between 50–80 years of age were selected from the Somali older adult population living in the Helsinki area (N = 307). Participants were matched with native Finns by gender, age, education, and civic status. The BDI-21 was used for depressive symptoms, the GHQ-12 for psychological distress, and the HRQoL was used for health-related quality of life. Standard instruments were used for sleeping difficulties, somatic symptoms and somatization, hypochondria, and self-rated health. Clinically significant differences in psychological distress, depressive symptoms, sleeping difficulties, self-rated health status, subjective quality of life, and functional capacity were found between the Somali and Finnish groups. In each case, the Somalis fared worse than the Finns. No significant differences in somatization were found between the two groups. Exposure to traumatic events prior to immigrating to Finland was associated with higher levels of mental distress, as well as poorer health status, health-related quality of life, and subjective quality of life among Somalis. Refugee-related traumatic experiences may constitute a long lasting mental health burden among older adults. Health care professionals in host countries must take into account these realities while planning for the care of refugee populations.

The ethnic gap in mental health: A population-based study of Russian, Somali and Kurdish origin migrants in Finland

Aims: Research demonstrates that migrants are more vulnerable to poor mental health than general populations, but population-based studies with distinct migrant groups are scarce. We aim to (1) assess the prevalence of mental health symptoms in Russian, Somali and Kurdish origin migrants in Finland; (2) compare the prevalence of mental health symptoms in these migrant groups to the Finnish population; (3) determine which socio-demographic factors are associated with mental health symptoms. Methods: We used data from the Finnish Migrant Health and Wellbeing Study and Health 2011 Survey. Depressive and anxiety symptoms were measured using the Hopkins Symptom Checklist-25 (HSCL-25), and 1.75 was used as cut-off for clinically significant symptoms. Somatization was measured using the Symptom Checklist-90 (SCL-90) somatization scale. The age-adjusted prevalence of mental health symptoms in the studied groups was calculated by gender using predicted margins. Logistic regression analysis was used to determine which socio-demographic factors are associated with mental health symptoms in the studied population groups. Results: The prevalence of depressive and anxiety symptoms was higher in Russian women (24%) and Kurdish men (23%) and women (49%) than in the Finnish population (9–10%). These differences were statistically significant (p <.001). Socioeconomic disadvantage (e.g. unemployment and poor economic situation) and migration-related factors (e.g. poor language proficiency and short time since migration) significantly increased the odds for depressive and anxiety symptoms. Conclusions: Mental health symptoms are highly prevalent particularly in Kurdish migrants in Finland. Holistic interventions and co-operation between integration and mental health services are acutely needed.

Depressive Symptoms and Their Psychosocial Correlates Among Older Somali Refugees and Native Finns

In this study, we analyzed the manifestation of somatic-affective and cognitive depressive symptoms among older Somali refugees and native Finns. Second, we explored how depressive symptoms, alexithymia, and somatization are associated in the two groups. Finally, we analyzed how two psychosocial factors, sense of coherence (SOC) and social support, are connected to depressive symptoms among Somalis and Finns. The participants were examined with the Beck Depression Inventory (BDI) for depressive symptoms, the Symptom Checklist–90–Revised (SCL-90-R) for somatization, Toronto Alexithymia Scale (TAS-20) for alexithymia, and the Sense of Coherence (SOC-13) concept for SOC. Social support was indicated by help received from social networks and marital status. Results showed that Somalis manifested more somatic-affective symptoms of depression than Finns, whereas Finns manifested more cognitive symptoms than Somalis. The association between depressive symptoms and alexithymia was stronger in the Finnish group, whereas the association between depressive symptoms and somatization was stronger in the Somali group. The association between alexithymia and somatization did not differ between the groups. A weak SOC explained depressive symptoms among Somalis and Finns, but poor social support did not explain depression in either group. The results are discussed in relation to Somali and Finnish cultures, mental health beliefs, and immigrant populations.

Mental health among older refugees: the role of trauma, discrimination, and religiousness.

ABSTRACT Objectives: The aim of this study was to examine, first, how past traumatic stress and present acculturation indices, and discrimination are associated with mental health; and, second, whether religiousness can buffer the mental health from negative impacts of war trauma. Method: Participants were 128 older (50–80 years) Somali refugees living in Finland. They reported experiences of war trauma and childhood adversities, and filled-in questionnaires of perceived ethnic discrimination, religiousness (beliefs, attendance, and observance of Islamic faith), and symptoms of posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD), depressive (BDI-21), psychological distress (GHQ-12), and somatization (SCL-90). Results: Symptom-specific regression models showed that newly arrived refugees with non-permanent legal status and severe exposures to war trauma, childhood adversity, and discrimination endorsed greater PTSD symptoms, while only war trauma and discrimination were associated with depressive symptoms. Results confirmed that high religiousness could play a buffering role among older Somalis, as exposure to severe war trauma was not associated with high levels of PTSD or somatization symptoms among highly religious refugees. Conclusion: Health care should consider both unique past and present vulnerabilities and resources when treating refugees, and everyday discrimination and racism should be regarded as health risks.

Achieving high acceptability of HIV testing in a population-based survey among immigrants in Finland

Aims: The aim of this study was to assess the acceptability of human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) testing among migrants in Finland and the factors contributing to non-acceptance. Methods: The Finnish Migrant Health and Wellbeing Study ‘Maamu’ was the first national population-based Health Interview and Examination Survey (HIS/HES) among migrants in Finland. A total of 386 Kurdish, Russian and Somali immigrants in Helsinki participated in the study. Results: Despite the participants’ different sociodemographic backgrounds, a high rate of test acceptability (92%, 95% CI 90–95) was achieved. HIV test acceptance was associated with pretest counselling, ability to understand spoken Finnish or Swedish and employment status. No participants tested positive for HIV. Conclusions: The results imply that a universal HIV testing strategy is well accepted in a low-HIV prevalence immigrant population and can be included in a general health examination in immigrant population-based surveys.

Causal attributions of mental health problems and depressive symptoms among older Somali refugees in Finland

Causal attributions of mental health problems play a crucial role in shaping and differentiating illness experience in different sociocultural and ethnic groups. The aims of this study were (a) to analyze older Somali refugees’ causal attributions of mental health problems; (b) to examine the associations between demographic and diagnostic characteristics, proxy indicators of acculturation, and causal attributions; and (c) to analyze the connections between causal attributions and the manifestation of somatic-affective and cognitive depressive symptoms. A sample of 128 Somali refugees aged 50–80 years living in Finland were asked to list the top three causes of mental health problems. Depressive symptoms were analyzed using the Beck Depression Inventory (BDI). The results showed that the most commonly endorsed causal attributions of mental health problems were jinn, jealousy related to polygamous relationships, and various life problems. We identified five attribution categories: (a) somatic, (b) interpersonal, (c) psychological, (d) life experiences, and (e) religious causes. The most common causal attribution categories were life experiences and interpersonal causes of mental health problems. Men tended to attribute mental health problems to somatic and psychological causes, and women to interpersonal and religious causes. Age and proxy indicators of acculturation were not associated with causal attributions. Participants with a psychiatric diagnosis and/or treatment history reported more somatic and psychological attributions than other participants. Finally, those who attributed mental health problems to life experiences (e.g., war) reported marginally fewer cognitive depressive symptoms (e.g., guilt) than those who did not. The results are discussed in relation to biomedical models of mental health, service use, immigration experiences, and culturally relevant patterns of symptom manifestation.

Usage of healthcare services and preference for mental healthcare among older Somali immigrants in Finland

ABSTRACT Objectives: The aims of the study were, first, to describe and analyze healthcare services utilization patterns of older immigrants in Finland, and particularly to compare the availability and accessibility of health services between older Somalis and Finns. The second aim was to examine the preferences for mental healthcare within the group of Somalis. The third aim was to test the existence of a service usage gap expected to be characteristic of the Somali group, in which high levels of mental health problems occur alongside simultaneous low levels of mental health service usage. Design: The participants were 256 men and women between the ages of 50–85; half were Somali migrants and the other half Finnish matched pairs. The participants were surveyed regarding their usage of somatic, mental, and preventive health services, as well as symptoms of depression, general distress, and somatization. The Somali participants were also surveyed regarding their usage of traditional healing methods and preferences for mental healthcare. Results: The Somali group had significantly lower access to personal/family doctors at healthcare centers as well as a lower availability of private doctors and occupational health services than the Finns. Instead, they used more nursing services than Finnish patients. The Somali participants attended fewer age-salient preventive check-ups than the Finns. The majority of the Somalis preferred traditional care, most commonly religious healing, for mental health problems. The hypothesized service gap was not substantiated, as a high level of depressive symptoms was not associated with a low usage of health services among the Somalis, but it was found unexpectedly among the Finns. Conclusion: Our findings call for culturally appropriate general and mental health services for older immigrants, which requires awareness of clients’ preferences, needs, and alternative healing practices. Somali participants encountered institutional barriers in accessing healthcare, and they preferred informal mental healthcare, especially religious healing instead of Western practices.

Female Genital Mutilation/Cutting among Women of Somali and Kurdish Origin in Finland

Background The tradition of female genital mutilation/cutting (FGM/C) has spread in Europe as a result of immigration. Although it is known to have negative health impacts, the exact prevalence of FGM/C and its health effects in Finland are unknown. This study explores the prevalence of FGM/C, the sociodemographic characteristics associated with it, and its health effects among women of Somali and Kurdish origin in Finland. Methods Data were obtained from the Migrant Health and Well Being Study carried out in 2010–2012. This study uses data from interviews with Somali (N = 165) and Kurdish origin (N = 224) women. The participation rate was 37 percent for Somali and 54 percent for Kurdish origin women. Results The prevalence of FGM/C was 69 percent among those of Somali origin and 32 percent among those of Kurdish origin. Having no education and older age were significantly associated with FGM/C, as was marriage amongst women of Somali origin, and the practice of Islam among women of Kurdish origin. Reporting good self-perceived health was more common among women without FGM/C. Outpatient visits to medical doctors were less common among women of Somali origin with FGM/C, compared with women without FGM/C. About 26 percent of Somali origin and 39 percent of Kurdish origin women with FGM/C reported reproductive or other health problems because of FGM/C. Discussion FGM/C is more common in Finland than previously assumed, particularly among women of Kurdish origin. Women with FGM/C need improved access to culturally competent health services to address the health impacts of FGM/C. Education and outreach to immigrant communities to prevent future FGM/C are also urgently needed.BACKGROUND The tradition of female genital mutilation/cutting (FGM/C) has spread in Europe as a result of immigration. Although it is known to have negative health impacts, the exact prevalence of FGM/C and its health effects in Finland are unknown. This study explores the prevalence of FGM/C, the sociodemographic characteristics associated with it, and its health effects among women of Somali and Kurdish origin in Finland. METHODS Data were obtained from the Migrant Health and Well Being Study carried out in 2010-2012. This study uses data from interviews with Somali (N = 165) and Kurdish origin (N = 224) women. The participation rate was 37 percent for Somali and 54 percent for Kurdish origin women. RESULTS The prevalence of FGM/C was 69 percent among those of Somali origin and 32 percent among those of Kurdish origin. Having no education and older age were significantly associated with FGM/C, as was marriage amongst women of Somali origin, and the practice of Islam among women of Kurdish origin. Reporting good self-perceived health was more common among women without FGM/C. Outpatient visits to medical doctors were less common among women of Somali origin with FGM/C, compared with women without FGM/C. About 26 percent of Somali origin and 39 percent of Kurdish origin women with FGM/C reported reproductive or other health problems because of FGM/C. DISCUSSION FGM/C is more common in Finland than previously assumed, particularly among women of Kurdish origin. Women with FGM/C need improved access to culturally competent health services to address the health impacts of FGM/C. Education and outreach to immigrant communities to prevent future FGM/C are also urgently needed.